2485 lines
89 KiB
Plaintext
2485 lines
89 KiB
Plaintext
DNS HOWTO
|
||
Nicolai Langfeldt (dns-howto(at)langfeldt.net), Jamie Nor
|
||
rish and others
|
||
v9.0, 2001-12-20
|
||
|
||
HOWTO become a totally small time DNS admin.
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
Table of Contents
|
||
|
||
|
||
1. Preamble
|
||
|
||
1.1 Legal stuff
|
||
1.2 Credits and request for help.
|
||
1.3 Dedication
|
||
1.4 Updated versions
|
||
|
||
2. Introduction.
|
||
|
||
2.1 Other nameserver implementations.
|
||
|
||
3. A resolving, caching name server.
|
||
|
||
3.1 Starting named
|
||
3.2 Resolvers
|
||
3.3 Congratulations
|
||
|
||
4. Forwarding
|
||
|
||
5. A
|
||
|
||
5.1 But first some dry theory
|
||
5.2 Our own domain
|
||
5.3 The reverse zone
|
||
5.4 Words of caution
|
||
5.5 Why reverse lookups don't work.
|
||
5.5.1 The reverse zone isn't delegated.
|
||
5.5.2 You've got a classless subnet
|
||
5.6 Slave servers
|
||
|
||
6. Basic security options.
|
||
|
||
6.1 Restricting zone transfers
|
||
6.2 Protecting against spoofing
|
||
6.3 Running named as non-root
|
||
|
||
7. A real domain example
|
||
|
||
7.1 /etc/named.conf (or /var/named/named.conf)
|
||
7.2 /var/named/root.hints
|
||
7.3 /var/named/zone/127.0.0
|
||
7.4 /var/named/zone/land-5.com
|
||
7.5 /var/named/zone/206.6.177
|
||
|
||
8. Maintenance
|
||
|
||
9. Migrating to BIND 9
|
||
|
||
10. Questions and Answers
|
||
|
||
11. How to become a bigger time DNS admin.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
1. Preamble
|
||
|
||
Keywords: DNS, BIND, BIND 4, BIND 8, BIND 9, named, dialup, PPP, slip,
|
||
ISDN, Internet, domain, name, resolution, hosts, caching.
|
||
|
||
|
||
This document is part of the Linux Documentation Project.
|
||
|
||
|
||
1.1. Legal stuff
|
||
|
||
(C)opyright 1995-2001 Nicolai Langfeldt, Jamie Norrish & Co. Do not
|
||
modify without amending copyright, distribute freely but retain
|
||
copyright message.
|
||
|
||
|
||
1.2. Credits and request for help.
|
||
|
||
I want to thank all the people that I have bothered with reading this
|
||
HOWTO (you know who you are) and all the readers that have e-mailed
|
||
suggestions and notes.
|
||
|
||
|
||
This will never be a finished document; please send me mail about your
|
||
problems and successes. You can help make this a better HOWTO. So
|
||
please send comments and/or questions or money to
|
||
janl(at)langfeldt.net. Or buy my DNS book (it's titled "The Concise
|
||
Guide to DNS and BIND, the bibliography has ISBNs). If you send e-
|
||
mail and want an answer please show the simple courtesy of making sure
|
||
that the return address is correct and working. Also, please read the
|
||
``qanda'' section before mailing me. Another thing, I can only
|
||
understand Norwegian and English.
|
||
|
||
|
||
This is a HOWTO. I have maintained it as part of the LDP since 1995.
|
||
I have, during 2000, written a book on the same subject. I want to
|
||
say that, though this HOWTO is in many ways much like the book it is
|
||
not a watered down version concocted to market the book. The readers
|
||
of this HOWTO have helped me understand what is difficult to
|
||
understand about DNS. This has helped the book, but the book has also
|
||
helped me to think more about what this HOWTO needs. The HOWTO begot
|
||
the book. The book begot version 3 of this HOWTO. My thanks to the
|
||
book publisher, Que, that took a chance on me :-)
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
1.3. Dedication
|
||
|
||
This HOWTO is dedicated to Anne Line Norheim Langfeldt. Though she
|
||
will probably never read it since she's not that kind of girl.
|
||
|
||
|
||
1.4. Updated versions
|
||
|
||
You should be able to find updated versions of this HOWTO both at
|
||
<http://langfeldt.net/DNS-HOWTO/> and on <http://www.linuxdoc.org/>.
|
||
Go there if this document is dated more than 9 months ago.
|
||
|
||
|
||
2. Introduction.
|
||
|
||
What this is and isn't.
|
||
|
||
|
||
DNS is the Domain Name System. DNS converts machine names to the IP
|
||
addresses that all machines on the net have. It translates (or "maps"
|
||
as the jargon would have it) from name to address and from address to
|
||
name, and some other things. This HOWTO documents how to define such
|
||
mappings using Unix system, with a few things specific to Linux.
|
||
|
||
|
||
A mapping is simply an association between two things, in this case a
|
||
machine name, like ftp.linux.org, and the machine's IP number (or
|
||
address) 199.249.150.4. DNS also contains mappings the other way,
|
||
from the IP number to the machine name; this is called a "reverse
|
||
mapping".
|
||
|
||
|
||
DNS is, to the uninitiated (you ;-), one of the more opaque areas of
|
||
network administration. Fortunately DNS isn't really that hard. This
|
||
HOWTO will try to make a few things clearer. It describes how to set
|
||
up a simple DNS name server, starting with a caching only server and
|
||
going on to setting up a primary DNS server for a domain. For more
|
||
complex setups you can check the ``qanda'' section of this document.
|
||
If it's not described there you will need to read the Real
|
||
Documentation. I'll get back to what this Real Documentation consists
|
||
of in ``the last chapter''.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Before you start on this you should configure your machine so that you
|
||
can telnet in and out of it, and successfully make all kinds of
|
||
connections to the net, and you should especially be able to do telnet
|
||
127.0.0.1 and get your own machine (test it now!). You also need good
|
||
/etc/nsswitch.conf, /etc/resolv.conf and /etc/hosts files as a
|
||
starting point, since I will not explain their function here. If you
|
||
don't already have all this set up and working the Networking-HOWTO
|
||
and/or the Networking-Overview-HOWTO explains how to set it up. Read
|
||
them.
|
||
|
||
|
||
When I say `your machine' I mean the machine you are trying to set up
|
||
DNS on, not any other machine you might have that's involved in your
|
||
networking effort.
|
||
|
||
|
||
I assume you're not behind any kind of firewall that blocks name
|
||
queries. If you are you will need a special configuration --- see the
|
||
section on ``qanda''.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Name serving on Unix is done by a program called named. This is a
|
||
part of the ``BIND'' package which is coordinated by The Internet
|
||
Software Consortium. Named is included in most Linux distributions
|
||
and is usually installed as /usr/sbin/named, usually from a package
|
||
called BIND, in upper or lower case depending on the whim of the
|
||
packager.
|
||
|
||
|
||
If you have a named you can probably use it; if you don't have one you
|
||
can get a binary off a Linux ftp site, or get the latest and greatest
|
||
source from <ftp://ftp.isc.org/isc/bind9/>. This HOWTO is about BIND
|
||
version 9. The old versions of the HOWTO, about BIND 4 and 8, is
|
||
still available at <http://langfeldt.net/DNS-HOWTO/> in case you use
|
||
BIND 4 or 8 (incidentally, you will find this HOWTO there too). If
|
||
the named man page talks about (at the very end, in the FILES section)
|
||
named.conf you have BIND 8; if it talks about named.boot you have BIND
|
||
4. If you have 4 and are security conscious you really ought to
|
||
upgrade to the latest version of BIND 8. Now.
|
||
|
||
|
||
DNS is a net-wide database. Take care about what you put into it. If
|
||
you put junk into it, you, and others, will get junk out of it. Keep
|
||
your DNS tidy and consistent and you will get good service from it.
|
||
Learn to use it, admin it, debug it and you will be another good admin
|
||
keeping the net from falling to its knees by mismanagement.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Tip: Make backup copies of all the files I instruct you to change if
|
||
you already have them, so that if after going through this nothing
|
||
works you can get it back to your old, working state.
|
||
|
||
|
||
2.1. Other nameserver implementations.
|
||
|
||
This section was written by Joost van Baal.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Various packages exist for getting a DNS server on your box. There is
|
||
the BIND package ( <http://www.isc.org/products/BIND/>); the
|
||
implementation this HOWTO is about. It's the most popular nameserver
|
||
around and it's used on the vast majority of name serving machines on
|
||
the Internet, around and being deployed since the 1980's. It's
|
||
available under a BSD license. Since it's the most popular package,
|
||
loads of documentation and knowledge about BIND is around. However,
|
||
there have been security problems with BIND.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Then there is djbdns ( <http://djbdns.org/>), a relatively new DNS
|
||
package written by Daniel J. Bernstein, who also wrote qmail. It's a
|
||
very modular suite: various small programs take care of the different
|
||
jobs a nameserver is supposed to handle. It's designed with security
|
||
in mind. It uses a simpler zone-file format, and is generally easier
|
||
to configure. However, since it's less well known, your local guru
|
||
might not be able to help you with this. Unfortunately, this software
|
||
is not Open Source. The author's advertisement is on
|
||
<http://cr.yp.to/djbdns/ad.html>.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Whether DJBs software is really an improvement over the older
|
||
alternatives is a subject of much debate. A discussion (or is it a
|
||
flame-war?) of BIND vs djbdns, joined by ISC people, is on
|
||
<http://www.isc.org/ml-archives/bind-users/2000/08/msg01075.html>
|
||
|
||
|
||
3. A resolving, caching name server.
|
||
|
||
A first stab at DNS config, very useful for dialup, cable-modem, ADSL
|
||
and similar users.
|
||
|
||
|
||
On Red Hat and Red Hat related distributions you can achieve the same
|
||
practical result as this HOWTO's first section by installing the
|
||
packages bind, bind-utils and caching-nameserver. If you use Debian
|
||
simply install bind (or bind9, as of this writing, BIND 9 is not
|
||
supported by Debian Stable (potato)) and bind-doc. Of course just
|
||
installing those packages won't teach you as much as reading this
|
||
HOWTO. So install the packages, and then read along verifying the
|
||
files they installed.
|
||
|
||
|
||
A caching only name server will find the answer to name queries and
|
||
remember the answer the next time you need it. This will shorten the
|
||
waiting time the next time significantly, especially if you're on a
|
||
slow connection.
|
||
|
||
|
||
First you need a file called /etc/named.conf (Debian:
|
||
/etc/bind/named.conf). This is read when named starts. For now it
|
||
should simply contain:
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
// Config file for caching only name server
|
||
//
|
||
// The version of the HOWTO you read may contain leading spaces
|
||
// (spaces in front of the characters on these lines ) in this and
|
||
// other files. You must remove them for things to work.
|
||
//
|
||
// Note that the filenames and directory names may differ, the
|
||
// ultimate contents of should be quite similar though.
|
||
|
||
options {
|
||
directory "/var/named";
|
||
|
||
// Uncommenting this might help if you have to go through a
|
||
// firewall and things are not working out. But you probably
|
||
// need to talk to your firewall admin.
|
||
|
||
// query-source port 53;
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
controls {
|
||
inet 127.0.0.1 allow { localhost; } keys { rndc_key; };
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
key "rndc_key" {
|
||
algorithm hmac-md5;
|
||
secret "c3Ryb25nIGVub3VnaCBmb3IgYSBtYW4gYnV0IG1hZGUgZm9yIGEgd29tYW4K";
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
zone "." {
|
||
type hint;
|
||
file "root.hints";
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
zone "0.0.127.in-addr.arpa" {
|
||
type master;
|
||
file "pz/127.0.0";
|
||
};
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
The Linux distribution packages may use different file names for each
|
||
kind of file mentioned here; they will still contain about the same
|
||
things.
|
||
|
||
|
||
The `directory' line tells named where to look for files. All files
|
||
named subsequently will be relative to this. Thus pz is a directory
|
||
under /var/named, i.e., /var/named/pz. /var/named is the right
|
||
directory according to the Linux File system Standard.
|
||
|
||
|
||
The file named /var/named/root.hints is named in this.
|
||
/var/named/root.hints should contain this:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
;
|
||
; There might be opening comments here if you already have this file.
|
||
; If not don't worry.
|
||
;
|
||
; About any leading spaces in front of the lines here: remove them!
|
||
; Lines should start in a ;, . or character, not blanks.
|
||
;
|
||
. 6D IN NS A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS B.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS C.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS D.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS E.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS G.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS H.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS I.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS J.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS K.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS L.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS M.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 6D IN A 198.41.0.4
|
||
B.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 6D IN A 128.9.0.107
|
||
C.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 6D IN A 192.33.4.12
|
||
D.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 6D IN A 128.8.10.90
|
||
E.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 6D IN A 192.203.230.10
|
||
F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 6D IN A 192.5.5.241
|
||
G.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 6D IN A 192.112.36.4
|
||
H.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 6D IN A 128.63.2.53
|
||
I.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 6D IN A 192.36.148.17
|
||
J.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 6D IN A 198.41.0.10
|
||
K.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 6D IN A 193.0.14.129
|
||
L.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 6D IN A 198.32.64.12
|
||
M.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 6D IN A 202.12.27.33
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
The file describes the root name servers in the world. The servers
|
||
change over time and must be maintained now and then. See the
|
||
``maintenance section'' for how to keep it up to date.
|
||
|
||
|
||
The next section in named.conf is the last zone. I will explain its
|
||
use in a later chapter; for now just make this a file named 127.0.0 in
|
||
the subdirectory pz: (Again, please remove leading spaces if you cut
|
||
and paste this)
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
$TTL 3D
|
||
@ IN SOA ns.linux.bogus. hostmaster.linux.bogus. (
|
||
1 ; Serial
|
||
8H ; Refresh
|
||
2H ; Retry
|
||
4W ; Expire
|
||
1D) ; Minimum TTL
|
||
NS ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
1 PTR localhost.
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
The sections called key and controls together specify that your named
|
||
can be remotely controlled by a program called rndc if it connects
|
||
from the local host, and identifis itself with the encoded secret key.
|
||
This key is like a password. For rndc to work you need /etc/rndc.conf
|
||
to match this:
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
key rndc_key {
|
||
algorithm "hmac-md5";
|
||
secret "c3Ryb25nIGVub3VnaCBmb3IgYSBtYW4gYnV0IG1hZGUgZm9yIGEgd29tYW4K";
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
options {
|
||
default-server localhost;
|
||
default-key rndc_key;
|
||
};
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
As you see the secret is identical. If you want to use rndc from
|
||
other machines their times need to be within 5 minutes of eachother.
|
||
I recommend using the ntp (xntpd and ntpdate) software to do this.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Next, you need a /etc/resolv.conf looking something like this: (Again:
|
||
Remove spaces!)
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
search subdomain.your-domain.edu your-domain.edu
|
||
nameserver 127.0.0.1
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
The `search' line specifies what domains should be searched for any
|
||
host names you want to connect to. The `nameserver' line specifies
|
||
the address of your nameserver, in this case your own machine since
|
||
that is where your named runs (127.0.0.1 is right, no matter if your
|
||
machine has another address too). If you want to list several name
|
||
servers put in one `nameserver' line for each. (Note: Named never
|
||
reads this file, the resolver that uses named does. Note 2: In some
|
||
resolv.conf files you find a line saying "domain". That's fine, but
|
||
don't use both "search" and "domain", only one of them will work).
|
||
|
||
|
||
To illustrate what this file does: If a client tries to look up foo,
|
||
then foo.subdomain.your-domain.edu is tried first, then foo.your-
|
||
domain.edu, and finally foo. You may not want to put in too many
|
||
domains in the search line, as it takes time to search them all.
|
||
|
||
|
||
The example assumes you belong in the domain subdomain.your-
|
||
domain.edu; your machine, then, is probably called your-
|
||
machine.subdomain.your-domain.edu. The search line should not contain
|
||
your TLD (Top Level Domain, `edu' in this case). If you frequently
|
||
need to connect to hosts in another domain you can add that domain to
|
||
the search line like this: (Remember to remove the leading spaces, if
|
||
any)
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
search subdomain.your-domain.edu your-domain.edu other-domain.com
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
and so on. Obviously you need to put real domain names in instead.
|
||
Please note the lack of periods at the end of the domain names. This
|
||
is important; please note the lack of periods at the end of the domain
|
||
names.
|
||
|
||
|
||
3.1. Starting named
|
||
|
||
After all this it's time to start named. If you're using a dialup
|
||
connection connect first. Now run named, either by running the boot
|
||
script: /etc/init.d/named start or named directly: /usr/sbin/named.
|
||
If you have tried previous versions of BIND you're probably used to
|
||
ndc. I BIND 9 it has been replaced with rndc, which can controll your
|
||
named remotely, but it can't start named anymore. If you view your
|
||
syslog message file (usually called /var/log/messages, Debian calls it
|
||
/var/log/daemon, another directory to look is the other files
|
||
/var/log) while starting named (do tail -f /var/log/messages) you
|
||
should see something like:
|
||
|
||
|
||
(the lines ending in \ continues on the next line)
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
Dec 23 02:21:12 lookfar named[11031]: starting BIND 9.1.3
|
||
Dec 23 02:21:12 lookfar named[11031]: using 1 CPU
|
||
Dec 23 02:21:12 lookfar named[11034]: loading configuration from \
|
||
'/etc/named.conf'
|
||
Dec 23 02:21:12 lookfar named[11034]: the default for the \
|
||
'auth-nxdomain' option is now 'no'
|
||
Dec 23 02:21:12 lookfar named[11034]: no IPv6 interfaces found
|
||
Dec 23 02:21:12 lookfar named[11034]: listening on IPv4 interface lo, \
|
||
127.0.0.1#53
|
||
Dec 23 02:21:12 lookfar named[11034]: listening on IPv4 interface eth0, \
|
||
10.0.0.129#53
|
||
Dec 23 02:21:12 lookfar named[11034]: command channel listening on \
|
||
127.0.0.1#953
|
||
Dec 23 02:21:13 lookfar named[11034]: running
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
If there are any messages about errors then there is a mistake. Named
|
||
will name the file it is reading. Go back and check the file. Start
|
||
named over when it is fixed.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Now you can test your setup. Traditionally a program called nslookup
|
||
is used for this. These days dig is recommended:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
$ dig -x 127.0.0.1
|
||
;; Got answer:
|
||
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 26669
|
||
;; flags: qr aa rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 1, AUTHORITY: 1, ADDITIONAL: 0
|
||
|
||
;; QUESTION SECTION:
|
||
;1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa. IN PTR
|
||
|
||
;; ANSWER SECTION:
|
||
1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN PTR localhost.
|
||
|
||
;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
|
||
0.0.127.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN NS ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
|
||
;; Query time: 3 msec
|
||
;; SERVER: 127.0.0.1#53(127.0.0.1)
|
||
;; WHEN: Sun Dec 23 02:26:17 2001
|
||
;; MSG SIZE rcvd: 91
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
If that's what you get it's working. We hope. Anything very
|
||
different, go back and check everything. Each time you change a file
|
||
you need to run rndc reload.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Now you can enter a query. Try looking up some machine close to you.
|
||
pat.uio.no is close to me, at the University of Oslo:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
$ dig pat.uio.no
|
||
; <<>> DiG 9.1.3 <<>> pat.uio.no
|
||
;; global options: printcmd
|
||
;; Got answer:
|
||
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 15574
|
||
;; flags: qr rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 1, AUTHORITY: 3, ADDITIONAL: 0
|
||
|
||
;; QUESTION SECTION:
|
||
;pat.uio.no. IN A
|
||
|
||
;; ANSWER SECTION:
|
||
pat.uio.no. 86400 IN A 129.240.130.16
|
||
|
||
;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
|
||
uio.no. 86400 IN NS nissen.uio.no.
|
||
uio.no. 86400 IN NS nn.uninett.no.
|
||
uio.no. 86400 IN NS ifi.uio.no.
|
||
|
||
;; Query time: 651 msec
|
||
;; SERVER: 127.0.0.1#53(127.0.0.1)
|
||
;; WHEN: Sun Dec 23 02:28:35 2001
|
||
;; MSG SIZE rcvd: 108
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
This time dig asked your named to look for the machine pat.uio.no. It
|
||
then contacted one of the name server machines named in your
|
||
root.hints file, and asked its way from there. It might take tiny
|
||
while before you get the result as it may need to search all the
|
||
domains you named in /etc/resolv.conf.
|
||
|
||
If you ask the same again you get this:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
$ dig pat.uio.no
|
||
|
||
; <<>> DiG 8.2 <<>> pat.uio.no
|
||
;; res options: init recurs defnam dnsrch
|
||
;; got answer:
|
||
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 4
|
||
;; flags: qr rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 1, AUTHORITY: 3, ADDITIONAL: 3
|
||
;; QUERY SECTION:
|
||
;; pat.uio.no, type = A, class = IN
|
||
|
||
;; ANSWER SECTION:
|
||
pat.uio.no. 23h59m58s IN A 129.240.130.16
|
||
|
||
;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
|
||
UIO.NO. 23h59m58s IN NS nissen.UIO.NO.
|
||
UIO.NO. 23h59m58s IN NS ifi.UIO.NO.
|
||
UIO.NO. 23h59m58s IN NS nn.uninett.NO.
|
||
|
||
;; ADDITIONAL SECTION:
|
||
nissen.UIO.NO. 23h59m58s IN A 129.240.2.3
|
||
ifi.UIO.NO. 1d23h59m58s IN A 129.240.64.2
|
||
nn.uninett.NO. 1d23h59m58s IN A 158.38.0.181
|
||
|
||
;; Total query time: 4 msec
|
||
;; FROM: lookfar to SERVER: default -- 127.0.0.1
|
||
;; WHEN: Sat Dec 16 00:23:09 2000
|
||
;; MSG SIZE sent: 28 rcvd: 162
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
As you can plainly see this time it was much faster, 4ms versus more
|
||
than half a second earlier. The answer was cached. With cached
|
||
answers there is the possibility that the answer is out of date, but
|
||
the origin servers can control the time cached answers should be
|
||
considered valid, so there is a high probability that the answer you
|
||
get is valid.
|
||
|
||
|
||
3.2. Resolvers
|
||
|
||
All OSes implementing the standard C API has the calls gethostbyname
|
||
and gethostbyaddr. These can get information from several different
|
||
sources. Which sources it gets it from is configured in
|
||
/etc/nsswitch.conf on Linux (and some other Unixes). This is a long
|
||
file specifying from which file or database to get different kinds of
|
||
data types. It usually contains helpful comments at the top, which
|
||
you should consider reading. After that find the line starting with
|
||
`hosts:'; it should read:
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
hosts: files dns
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
(You remembered about the leading spaces, right? I won't mention them
|
||
again.)
|
||
|
||
If there is no line starting with `hosts:' then put in the one above.
|
||
It says that programs should first look in the /etc/hosts file, then
|
||
check DNS according to resolv.conf.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
3.3. Congratulations
|
||
|
||
Now you know how to set up a caching named. Take a beer, milk, or
|
||
whatever you prefer to celebrate it.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
4. Forwarding
|
||
|
||
In large, well organized, academic or ISP (Internet Service Provider)
|
||
networks you will sometimes find that the network people have set up a
|
||
forwarder hierarchy of DNS servers which helps lighten the internal
|
||
network load and the load on the outside servers as well. It's not
|
||
easy to know if you're inside such a network or not. But by using the
|
||
DNS server of your network provider as a ``forwarder'' you can make
|
||
the responses to queries faster and less of a load on your network.
|
||
This works by your nameserver forwarding queries to your ISP
|
||
nameserver. Each time this happens you will dip into the big cache of
|
||
your ISPs nameserver, thus speeding your queries up, your nameserver
|
||
does not have to do all the work itself. If you use a modem this can
|
||
be quite a win. For the sake of this example we assume that your
|
||
network provider has two name servers they want you to use, with IP
|
||
numbers 10.0.0.1 and 10.1.0.1. Then, in your named.conf file, inside
|
||
the opening section called ``options'', insert these lines:
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
forward first;
|
||
forwarders {
|
||
10.0.0.1;
|
||
10.1.0.1;
|
||
};
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
There is also a nice trick for dialup machines using forwarders, it is
|
||
described in the ``qanda'' section.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Restart your nameserver and test it with dig. Should still work fine.
|
||
|
||
|
||
5. A simple domain.
|
||
|
||
How to set up your own domain.
|
||
|
||
|
||
5.1. But first some dry theory
|
||
|
||
First of all: you read all the stuff before here right? You have to.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Before we really start this section I'm going to serve you some theory
|
||
on and an example of how DNS works. And you're going to read it
|
||
because it's good for you. If you don't want to you should at least
|
||
skim it very quickly. Stop skimming when you get to what should go in
|
||
your named.conf file.
|
||
|
||
DNS is a hierarchical, tree structured system. The top is written `.'
|
||
and pronounced `root', as is usual for tree data-structures. Under .
|
||
there are a number of Top Level Domains (TLDs); the best known ones
|
||
are ORG, COM, EDU and NET, but there are many more. Just like a tree
|
||
it has a root and it branches out. If you have any computer science
|
||
background you will recognize DNS as a search tree, and you will be
|
||
able to find nodes, leaf nodes and edges. The dots are nodes, the
|
||
edges are on the names.
|
||
|
||
|
||
When looking for a machine the query proceeds recursively into the
|
||
hierarchy starting at the root. If you want to find the address of
|
||
prep.ai.mit.edu., your nameserver has to start asking somewhere. It
|
||
starts by looking it its cache. If it knows the answer, having cached
|
||
it before, it will answer right away as we saw in the last section.
|
||
If it does not know it will see how closely it can match the requested
|
||
name and use whatever information it has cached. In the worst case
|
||
there is no match but the `.' (root) of the name, and the root servers
|
||
have to be consulted. It will remove the leftmost parts one at a
|
||
time, checking if it knows anything about ai.mit.edu., then mit.edu.,
|
||
then edu., and if not that it does know about . because that was in
|
||
the hints file. It will then ask a . server about prep.ai.mit.edu.
|
||
This . server will not know the answer, but it will help your server
|
||
on its way by giving a referral, telling it where to look instead.
|
||
These referrals will eventually lead your server to a nameserver that
|
||
knows the answer. I will illustrate that now. +norec means that dig
|
||
is asking non-recursive questions so that we get to do the recursion
|
||
ourselves. The other options are to reduce the amount of dig produces
|
||
so this won't go on for too many pages:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
$ ;; Got answer:
|
||
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 980
|
||
;; flags: qr ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 0, AUTHORITY: 13, ADDITIONAL: 0
|
||
|
||
;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
|
||
. 518400 IN NS J.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 518400 IN NS K.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 518400 IN NS L.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 518400 IN NS M.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 518400 IN NS A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 518400 IN NS B.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 518400 IN NS C.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 518400 IN NS D.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 518400 IN NS E.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 518400 IN NS F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 518400 IN NS G.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 518400 IN NS H.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 518400 IN NS I.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
This is a referral. It is giving us an "Authority section" only, no
|
||
"Answer section". Our own nameserver refers us to a nameserver. Pick
|
||
one at random:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
$ dig +norec +noques +nostats +nocmd prep.ai.mit.edu. @D.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
;; Got answer:
|
||
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 58260
|
||
;; flags: qr; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 0, AUTHORITY: 3, ADDITIONAL: 3
|
||
|
||
;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
|
||
mit.edu. 172800 IN NS BITSY.mit.edu.
|
||
mit.edu. 172800 IN NS STRAWB.mit.edu.
|
||
mit.edu. 172800 IN NS W20NS.mit.edu.
|
||
|
||
;; ADDITIONAL SECTION:
|
||
BITSY.mit.edu. 172800 IN A 18.72.0.3
|
||
STRAWB.mit.edu. 172800 IN A 18.71.0.151
|
||
W20NS.mit.edu. 172800 IN A 18.70.0.160
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
It refers us to MIT.EDU servers at once. Again pick one at random:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
$ dig +norec +noques +nostats +nocmd prep.ai.mit.edu. @BITSY.mit.edu.
|
||
;; Got answer:
|
||
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 29227
|
||
;; flags: qr ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 1, AUTHORITY: 4, ADDITIONAL: 4
|
||
|
||
;; ANSWER SECTION:
|
||
prep.ai.mit.edu. 10562 IN A 198.186.203.77
|
||
|
||
;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
|
||
ai.mit.edu. 21600 IN NS FEDEX.ai.mit.edu.
|
||
ai.mit.edu. 21600 IN NS LIFE.ai.mit.edu.
|
||
ai.mit.edu. 21600 IN NS ALPHA-BITS.ai.mit.edu.
|
||
ai.mit.edu. 21600 IN NS BEET-CHEX.ai.mit.edu.
|
||
|
||
;; ADDITIONAL SECTION:
|
||
FEDEX.ai.mit.edu. 21600 IN A 192.148.252.43
|
||
LIFE.ai.mit.edu. 21600 IN A 128.52.32.80
|
||
ALPHA-BITS.ai.mit.edu. 21600 IN A 128.52.32.5
|
||
BEET-CHEX.ai.mit.edu. 21600 IN A 128.52.32.22
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
This time we got a "ANSWER SECTION", and an answer for our question.
|
||
The "AUTHORITY SECTION" contains information about which servers to
|
||
ask about ai.mit.edu the next time. So you can ask them directly the
|
||
next time you wonder about ai.mit.edu names. Named also gathered
|
||
information about mit.edu, so of www.mit.edu is requested it is much
|
||
closer to being able to answer the question.
|
||
|
||
|
||
So starting at . we found the successive name servers for each level
|
||
in the domain name by referral. If you had used your own DNS server
|
||
instead of using all those other servers, your named would of-course
|
||
cache all the information it found while digging this out for you, and
|
||
it would not have to ask again for a while.
|
||
|
||
|
||
In the tree analogue each ``.'' in the name is a branching point. And
|
||
each part between the ``.''s are the names of individual branches in
|
||
the tree. One climbs the tree by taking the name we want
|
||
(prep.ai.mit.edu) asking the root (.) or whatever servers father from
|
||
the root toward prep.ai.mit.edu we have information about in the
|
||
cache. Once the cache limits are reached the recursive resolver goes
|
||
out asking servers, pursuing referrals (edges) further into the name.
|
||
|
||
|
||
A much less talked about, but just as important domain is in-
|
||
addr.arpa. It too is nested like the `normal' domains. in-addr.arpa
|
||
allows us to get the host's name when we have its address. A
|
||
important thing to note here is that the IP addresses are written in
|
||
reverse order in the in-addr.arpa domain. If you have the address of
|
||
a machine: 198.186.203.77 named proceeds to find the named
|
||
77.203.168.198.in-addr.arpa/ just like it did for prep.ai.mit.edu.
|
||
Example: Finding no cache entry for any match but `.', ask a root
|
||
server, m.root-servers.net refers you to some other root servers.
|
||
b.root-servers.net refers you directly to bitsy.mit.edu/. You should
|
||
be able to take it from there.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
5.2. Our own domain
|
||
|
||
Now to define our own domain. We're going to make the domain
|
||
linux.bogus and define machines in it. I use a totally bogus domain
|
||
name to make sure we disturb no-one Out There.
|
||
|
||
|
||
One more thing before we start: Not all characters are allowed in host
|
||
names. We're restricted to the characters of the English alphabet: a-
|
||
z, and numbers 0-9 and the character '-' (dash). Keep to those
|
||
characters (BIND 9 will not bug you if you break this rule, BIND 8
|
||
will). Upper and lower-case characters are the same for DNS, so
|
||
pat.uio.no is identical to Pat.UiO.No.
|
||
|
||
|
||
We've already started this part with this line in named.conf:
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
zone "0.0.127.in-addr.arpa" {
|
||
type master;
|
||
file "pz/127.0.0";
|
||
};
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
Please note the lack of `.' at the end of the domain names in this
|
||
file. This says that now we will define the zone 0.0.127.in-
|
||
addr.arpa, that we're the master server for it and that it is stored
|
||
in a file called pz/127.0.0. We've already set up this file, it
|
||
reads:
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
$TTL 3D
|
||
@ IN SOA ns.linux.bogus. hostmaster.linux.bogus. (
|
||
1 ; Serial
|
||
8H ; Refresh
|
||
2H ; Retry
|
||
4W ; Expire
|
||
1D) ; Minimum TTL
|
||
NS ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
1 PTR localhost.
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
Please note the `.' at the end of all the full domain names in this
|
||
file, in contrast to the named.conf file above. Some people like to
|
||
start each zone file with a $ORIGIN directive, but this is
|
||
superfluous. The origin (where in the DNS hierarchy it belongs) of a
|
||
zone file is specified in the zone section of the named.conf file; in
|
||
this case it's 0.0.127.in-addr.arpa.
|
||
|
||
|
||
This `zone file' contains 3 `resource records' (RRs): A SOA RR. A NS
|
||
RR and a PTR RR. SOA is short for Start Of Authority. The `@' is a
|
||
special notation meaning the origin, and since the `domain' column for
|
||
this file says 0.0.127.in-addr.arpa the first line really means
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
0.0.127.in-addr.arpa. IN SOA ...
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
NS is the Name Server RR. There is no '@' at the start of this line;
|
||
it is implicit since the previous line started with a '@'. Saves some
|
||
typing that. So the NS line could also be written
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
0.0.127.in-addr.arpa. IN NS ns.linux.bogus
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
It tells DNS what machine is the name server of the domain 0.0.127.in-
|
||
addr.arpa, it is ns.linux.bogus. 'ns' is a customary name for name-
|
||
servers, but as with web servers who are customarily named
|
||
www.something. The name may be anything.
|
||
|
||
|
||
And finally the PTR (Domain Name Pointer) record says that the host at
|
||
address 1 in the subnet 0.0.127.in-addr.arpa, i.e., 127.0.0.1 is named
|
||
localhost.
|
||
|
||
|
||
The SOA record is the preamble to all zone files, and there should be
|
||
exactly one in each zone file, at the top (but after the $TTL
|
||
directive). It describes the zone, where it comes from (a machine
|
||
called ns.linux.bogus), who is responsible for its contents
|
||
(hostmaster@linux.bogus; you should insert your e-mail address here),
|
||
what version of the zone file this is (serial: 1), and other things
|
||
having to do with caching and secondary DNS servers. For the rest of
|
||
the fields (refresh, retry, expire and minimum) use the numbers used
|
||
in this HOWTO and you should be safe. Before the SOA comes a
|
||
mandatory line, the $TTL 3D line. Put it in all your zone files.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Now restart your named (rndc stop; named) and use dig to examine your
|
||
handy work. -x asks for the inverse query:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
$ dig -x 127.0.0.1
|
||
;; Got answer:
|
||
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 30944
|
||
;; flags: qr aa rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 1, AUTHORITY: 1, ADDITIONAL: 0
|
||
|
||
;; QUESTION SECTION:
|
||
;1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa. IN PTR
|
||
|
||
;; ANSWER SECTION:
|
||
1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN PTR localhost.
|
||
|
||
;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
|
||
0.0.127.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN NS ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
|
||
;; Query time: 3 msec
|
||
;; SERVER: 127.0.0.1#53(127.0.0.1)
|
||
;; WHEN: Sun Dec 23 03:02:39 2001
|
||
;; MSG SIZE rcvd: 91
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
So it manages to get localhost from 127.0.0.1, good. Now for our main
|
||
task, the linux.bogus domain, insert a new 'zone' section in
|
||
named.conf:
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
zone "linux.bogus" {
|
||
type master;
|
||
notify no;
|
||
file "pz/linux.bogus";
|
||
};
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
Note again the lack of ending `.' on the domain name in the named.conf
|
||
file.
|
||
|
||
|
||
In the linux.bogus zone file we'll put some totally bogus data:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
;
|
||
; Zone file for linux.bogus
|
||
;
|
||
; The full zone file
|
||
;
|
||
$TTL 3D
|
||
@ IN SOA ns.linux.bogus. hostmaster.linux.bogus. (
|
||
199802151 ; serial, todays date + todays serial #
|
||
8H ; refresh, seconds
|
||
2H ; retry, seconds
|
||
4W ; expire, seconds
|
||
1D ) ; minimum, seconds
|
||
;
|
||
NS ns ; Inet Address of name server
|
||
MX 10 mail.linux.bogus ; Primary Mail Exchanger
|
||
MX 20 mail.friend.bogus. ; Secondary Mail Exchanger
|
||
;
|
||
localhost A 127.0.0.1
|
||
ns A 192.168.196.2
|
||
mail A 192.168.196.4
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
Two things must be noted about the SOA record. ns.linux.bogus must be
|
||
a actual machine with a A record. It is not legal to have a CNAME
|
||
record for the machine mentioned in the SOA record. Its name need not
|
||
be `ns', it could be any legal host name. Next,
|
||
hostmaster.linux.bogus should be read as hostmaster@linux.bogus. This
|
||
should be a mail alias, or a mailbox, where the person(s) maintaining
|
||
DNS should read mail frequently. Any mail regarding the domain will
|
||
be sent to the address listed here. The name need not be
|
||
`hostmaster', it can be your normal e-mail address, but the e-mail
|
||
address `hostmaster' is often expected to work as well.
|
||
|
||
|
||
There is one new RR type in this file, the MX, or Mail eXchanger RR.
|
||
It tells mail systems where to send mail that is addressed to
|
||
someone@linux.bogus, namely to mail.linux.bogus or mail.friend.bogus.
|
||
The number before each machine name is that MX RR's priority. The RR
|
||
with the lowest number (10) is the one mail should be sent to if
|
||
possible. If that fails the mail can be sent to one with a higher
|
||
number, a secondary mail handler, i.e., mail.friend.bogus which has
|
||
priority 20 here.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Reload named by running rndc reload. Examine the results with dig:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
$ dig any linux.bogus
|
||
; <<>> DiG 9.1.3 <<>> any linux.bogus
|
||
;; global options: printcmd
|
||
;; Got answer:
|
||
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 55239
|
||
;; flags: qr aa rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 4, AUTHORITY: 1, ADDITIONAL: 1
|
||
|
||
;; QUESTION SECTION:
|
||
;linux.bogus. IN ANY
|
||
|
||
;; ANSWER SECTION:
|
||
linux.bogus. 259200 IN SOA ns.linux.bogus. \
|
||
hostmaster.linux.bogus. 199802151 28800 7200 2419200 86400
|
||
linux.bogus. 259200 IN NS ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 20 mail.friend.bogus.
|
||
linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 10 mail.linux.bogus.linux.bogus.
|
||
|
||
;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
|
||
linux.bogus. 259200 IN NS ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
|
||
;; ADDITIONAL SECTION:
|
||
ns.linux.bogus. 259200 IN A 192.168.196.2
|
||
|
||
;; Query time: 4 msec
|
||
;; SERVER: 127.0.0.1#53(127.0.0.1)
|
||
;; WHEN: Sun Dec 23 03:06:45 2001
|
||
;; MSG SIZE rcvd: 184
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
Upon careful examination you will discover a bug. The line
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 10 mail.linux.bogus.linux.bogus.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
is all wrong. It should be
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 10 mail.linux.bogus.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
I deliberately made a mistake so you could learn from it :-) Looking
|
||
in the zone file we find this line:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
MX 10 mail.linux.bogus ; Primary Mail Exchanger
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
It is missing a period. Or has a 'linux.bogus' too many. If a
|
||
machine name does not end in a period in a zone file the origin is
|
||
added to its end causing the double linux.bogus.linux.bogus. So
|
||
either
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
MX 10 mail.linux.bogus. ; Primary Mail Exchanger
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
or
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
MX 10 mail ; Primary Mail Exchanger
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
is correct. I prefer the latter form, it's less to type. There are
|
||
some BIND experts that disagree, and some that agree with this. In a
|
||
zone file the domain should either be written out and ended with a `.'
|
||
or it should not be included at all, in which case it defaults to the
|
||
origin.
|
||
|
||
|
||
I must stress that in the named.conf file there should not be `.'s
|
||
after the domain names. You have no idea how many times a `.' too
|
||
many or few have fouled up things and confused the h*ll out of people.
|
||
|
||
|
||
So having made my point here is the new zone file, with some extra
|
||
information in it as well:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
;
|
||
; Zone file for linux.bogus
|
||
;
|
||
; The full zone file
|
||
;
|
||
$TTL 3D
|
||
@ IN SOA ns.linux.bogus. hostmaster.linux.bogus. (
|
||
199802151 ; serial, todays date + todays serial #
|
||
8H ; refresh, seconds
|
||
2H ; retry, seconds
|
||
4W ; expire, seconds
|
||
1D ) ; minimum, seconds
|
||
;
|
||
TXT "Linux.Bogus, your DNS consultants"
|
||
NS ns ; Inet Address of name server
|
||
NS ns.friend.bogus.
|
||
MX 10 mail ; Primary Mail Exchanger
|
||
MX 20 mail.friend.bogus. ; Secondary Mail Exchanger
|
||
|
||
localhost A 127.0.0.1
|
||
|
||
gw A 192.168.196.1
|
||
TXT "The router"
|
||
|
||
ns A 192.168.196.2
|
||
MX 10 mail
|
||
MX 20 mail.friend.bogus.
|
||
www CNAME ns
|
||
|
||
donald A 192.168.196.3
|
||
MX 10 mail
|
||
MX 20 mail.friend.bogus.
|
||
TXT "DEK"
|
||
|
||
mail A 192.168.196.4
|
||
MX 10 mail
|
||
MX 20 mail.friend.bogus.
|
||
|
||
ftp A 192.168.196.5
|
||
MX 10 mail
|
||
MX 20 mail.friend.bogus.
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
CNAME (Canonical NAME) is a way to give each machine several names.
|
||
So www is an alias for ns. CNAME record usage is a bit controversial.
|
||
But it's safe to follow the rule that a MX, CNAME or SOA record should
|
||
never refer to a CNAME record, they should only refer to something
|
||
with an A record, so it is inadvisable to have
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
foobar CNAME www ; NO!
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
but correct to have
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
foobar CNAME ns ; Yes!
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
Load the new database by running rndc reload, which causes named to
|
||
read its files again.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
$ dig linux.bogus axfr
|
||
|
||
; <<>> DiG 9.1.3 <<>> linux.bogus axfr
|
||
;; global options: printcmd
|
||
linux.bogus. 259200 IN SOA ns.linux.bogus. hostmaster.linux.bogus. 199802151 28800 7200 2419200 86400
|
||
linux.bogus. 259200 IN NS ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 10 mail.linux.bogus.
|
||
linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 20 mail.friend.bogus.
|
||
donald.linux.bogus. 259200 IN A 192.168.196.3
|
||
donald.linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 10 mail.linux.bogus.
|
||
donald.linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 20 mail.friend.bogus.
|
||
donald.linux.bogus. 259200 IN TXT "DEK"
|
||
ftp.linux.bogus. 259200 IN A 192.168.196.5
|
||
ftp.linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 10 mail.linux.bogus.
|
||
ftp.linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 20 mail.friend.bogus.
|
||
gw.linux.bogus. 259200 IN A 192.168.196.1
|
||
gw.linux.bogus. 259200 IN TXT "The router"
|
||
localhost.linux.bogus. 259200 IN A 127.0.0.1
|
||
mail.linux.bogus. 259200 IN A 192.168.196.4
|
||
mail.linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 10 mail.linux.bogus.
|
||
mail.linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 20 mail.friend.bogus.
|
||
ns.linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 10 mail.linux.bogus.
|
||
ns.linux.bogus. 259200 IN MX 20 mail.friend.bogus.
|
||
ns.linux.bogus. 259200 IN A 192.168.196.2
|
||
www.linux.bogus. 259200 IN CNAME ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
linux.bogus. 259200 IN SOA ns.linux.bogus. hostmaster.linux.bogus. 199802151 28800 7200 2419200 86400
|
||
;; Query time: 41 msec
|
||
;; SERVER: 127.0.0.1#53(127.0.0.1)
|
||
;; WHEN: Sun Dec 23 03:12:31 2001
|
||
;; XFR size: 23 records
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
That's good. As you see it looks a bit like the zone file itself.
|
||
Let's check what it says for www alone:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
$ dig www.linux.bogus
|
||
|
||
; <<>> DiG 9.1.3 <<>> www.linux.bogus
|
||
;; global options: printcmd
|
||
;; Got answer:
|
||
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 16633
|
||
;; flags: qr aa rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 2, AUTHORITY: 1, ADDITIONAL: 0
|
||
|
||
;; QUESTION SECTION:
|
||
;www.linux.bogus. IN A
|
||
|
||
;; ANSWER SECTION:
|
||
www.linux.bogus. 259200 IN CNAME ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
ns.linux.bogus. 259200 IN A 192.168.196.2
|
||
|
||
;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
|
||
linux.bogus. 259200 IN NS ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
|
||
;; Query time: 5 msec
|
||
;; SERVER: 127.0.0.1#53(127.0.0.1)
|
||
;; WHEN: Sun Dec 23 03:14:14 2001
|
||
;; MSG SIZE rcvd: 80
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
In other words, the real name of www.linux.bogus is ns.linux.bogus,
|
||
and it gives you some of the information it has about ns as well,
|
||
enough to connect to it if you were a program.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Now we're halfway.
|
||
|
||
|
||
5.3. The reverse zone
|
||
|
||
Now programs can convert the names in linux.bogus to addresses which
|
||
they can connect to. But also required is a reverse zone, one making
|
||
DNS able to convert from an address to a name. This name is used by a
|
||
lot of servers of different kinds (FTP, IRC, WWW and others) to decide
|
||
if they want to talk to you or not, and if so, maybe even how much
|
||
priority you should be given. For full access to all services on the
|
||
Internet a reverse zone is required.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Put this in named.conf:
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
zone "196.168.192.in-addr.arpa" {
|
||
type master;
|
||
notify no;
|
||
file "pz/192.168.196";
|
||
};
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
This is exactly as with the 0.0.127.in-addr.arpa, and the contents are
|
||
similar:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
$TTL 3D
|
||
@ IN SOA ns.linux.bogus. hostmaster.linux.bogus. (
|
||
199802151 ; Serial, todays date + todays serial
|
||
8H ; Refresh
|
||
2H ; Retry
|
||
4W ; Expire
|
||
1D) ; Minimum TTL
|
||
NS ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
|
||
1 PTR gw.linux.bogus.
|
||
2 PTR ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
3 PTR donald.linux.bogus.
|
||
4 PTR mail.linux.bogus.
|
||
5 PTR ftp.linux.bogus.
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
Now you reload your named (rndc reload) and examine your work with dig
|
||
again:
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
$ dig -x 192.168.196.4
|
||
;; Got answer:
|
||
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 58451
|
||
;; flags: qr aa rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 1, AUTHORITY: 1, ADDITIONAL: 1
|
||
|
||
;; QUESTION SECTION:
|
||
;4.196.168.192.in-addr.arpa. IN PTR
|
||
|
||
;; ANSWER SECTION:
|
||
4.196.168.192.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN PTR mail.linux.bogus.
|
||
|
||
;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
|
||
196.168.192.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN NS ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
|
||
;; ADDITIONAL SECTION:
|
||
ns.linux.bogus. 259200 IN A 192.168.196.2
|
||
|
||
;; Query time: 4 msec
|
||
;; SERVER: 127.0.0.1#53(127.0.0.1)
|
||
;; WHEN: Sun Dec 23 03:16:05 2001
|
||
;; MSG SIZE rcvd: 107
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
so, it looks OK, dump the whole thing to examine that too:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
$ dig 196.168.192.in-addr.arpa. AXFR
|
||
|
||
; <<>> DiG 9.1.3 <<>> 196.168.192.in-addr.arpa. AXFR
|
||
;; global options: printcmd
|
||
196.168.192.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN SOA ns.linux.bogus. \
|
||
hostmaster.linux.bogus. 199802151 28800 7200 2419200 86400
|
||
196.168.192.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN NS ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
1.196.168.192.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN PTR gw.linux.bogus.
|
||
2.196.168.192.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN PTR ns.linux.bogus.
|
||
3.196.168.192.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN PTR donald.linux.bogus.
|
||
4.196.168.192.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN PTR mail.linux.bogus.
|
||
5.196.168.192.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN PTR ftp.linux.bogus.
|
||
196.168.192.in-addr.arpa. 259200 IN SOA ns.linux.bogus. \
|
||
hostmaster.linux.bogus. 199802151 28800 7200 2419200 86400
|
||
;; Query time: 6 msec
|
||
;; SERVER: 127.0.0.1#53(127.0.0.1)
|
||
;; WHEN: Sun Dec 23 03:16:58 2001
|
||
;; XFR size: 9 records
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
Looks good! If your output didn't look like that look for error-
|
||
messages in your syslog, I explained how to do that in the first
|
||
section under the heading ``Starting named''
|
||
|
||
|
||
5.4. Words of caution
|
||
|
||
There are some things I should add here. The IP numbers used in the
|
||
examples above are taken from one of the blocks of 'private nets',
|
||
i.e., they are not allowed to be used publicly on the Internet. So
|
||
they are safe to use in an example in a HOWTO. The second thing is
|
||
the notify no; line. It tells named not to notify its secondary
|
||
(slave) servers when it has gotten a update to one of its zone files.
|
||
In BIND 8 and later the named can notify the other servers listed in
|
||
NS records in the zone file when a zone is updated. This is handy for
|
||
ordinary use. But for private experiments with zones this feature
|
||
should be off --- we don't want the experiment to pollute the Internet
|
||
do we?
|
||
|
||
|
||
And, of course, this domain is highly bogus, and so are all the
|
||
addresses in it. For a real example of a real-life domain see the
|
||
next main-section.
|
||
|
||
|
||
5.5. Why reverse lookups don't work.
|
||
|
||
There are a couple of ``gotchas'' that normally are avoided with name
|
||
lookups that are often seen when setting up reverse zones. Before you
|
||
go on you need reverse lookups of your machines working on your own
|
||
nameserver. If it isn't go back and fix it before continuing.
|
||
|
||
|
||
I will discuss two failures of reverse lookups as seen from outside
|
||
your network:
|
||
|
||
|
||
5.5.1. The reverse zone isn't delegated.
|
||
|
||
When you ask a service provider for a network-address range and a
|
||
domain name the domain name is normally delegated as a matter of
|
||
course. A delegation is the glue NS record that helps you get from
|
||
one nameserver to another as explained in the dry theory section
|
||
above. You read that, right? If your reverse zone doesn't work go
|
||
back and read it. Now.
|
||
|
||
|
||
The reverse zone also needs to be delegated. If you got the
|
||
192.168.196 net with the linux.bogus domain from your provider they
|
||
need to put NS records in for your reverse zone as well as for your
|
||
forward zone. If you follow the chain from in-addr.arpa and up to
|
||
your net you will probably find a break in the chain, most probably at
|
||
your service provider. Having found the break in the chain contact
|
||
your service-provider and ask them to correct the error.
|
||
|
||
|
||
5.5.2. You've got a classless subnet
|
||
|
||
This is a somewhat advanced topic, but classless subnets are very
|
||
common these days and you probably have one if you're a small company.
|
||
|
||
|
||
A classless subnet is what keeps the Internet going these days. Some
|
||
years ago there was much ado about the shortage of IP numbers. The
|
||
smart people in IETF (the Internet Engineering Task Force, they keep
|
||
the Internet working) stuck their heads together and solved the
|
||
problem. At a price. The price is in part that you'll get less than
|
||
a ``C'' subnet and some things may break. Please see Ask Mr. DNS
|
||
<http://www.acmebw.com/askmrdns/00007.htm> for an good explanation of
|
||
this and how to handle it.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Did you read it? I'm not going to explain it so please read it.
|
||
|
||
|
||
The first part of the problem is that your ISP must understand the
|
||
technique described by Mr. DNS. Not all small ISPs have a working
|
||
understanding of this. If so you might have to explain to them and be
|
||
persistent. But be sure you understand it first ;-). They will then
|
||
set up a nice reverse zone at their server which you can examine for
|
||
correctness with dig.
|
||
|
||
|
||
The second and last part of the problem is that you must understand
|
||
the technique. If you're unsure go back and read about it again.
|
||
Then you can set up your own classless reverse zone as described by
|
||
Mr. DNS.
|
||
|
||
|
||
There is another trap lurking here. (Very) Old resolvers will not be
|
||
able to follow the CNAME trick in the resolving chain and will fail to
|
||
reverse-resolve your machine. This can result in the service
|
||
assigning it an incorrect access class, deny access or something along
|
||
those lines. If you stumble into such a service the only solution
|
||
(that I know of) is for your ISP to insert your PTR record directly
|
||
into their trick classless zone file instead of the trick CNAME
|
||
record.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Some ISPs will offer other ways to handle this, like Web based forms
|
||
for you to input your reverse-mappings in or other automagical
|
||
systems.
|
||
|
||
|
||
5.6. Slave servers
|
||
|
||
Once you have set up your zones correctly on the master servers you
|
||
need to set up at least one slave server. Slave servers are needed
|
||
for robustness. If your master goes down the people out there on the
|
||
net will still be able to get information about your domain from the
|
||
slave. A slave should be as long away from you as possible. Your
|
||
master and slave should share as few as possible of these: Power
|
||
supply, LAN, ISP, city and country. If all of these things are
|
||
different for your master and slave you've found a really good slave.
|
||
|
||
|
||
A slave is simply a nameserver that copies zone files from a master.
|
||
You set it up like this:
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
zone "linux.bogus" {
|
||
type slave;
|
||
file "sz/linux.bogus";
|
||
masters { 192.168.196.2; };
|
||
};
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
A mechanism called zone-transfer is used to copy the data. The zone
|
||
transfer is controlled by your SOA record:
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
@ IN SOA ns.linux.bogus. hostmaster.linux.bogus. (
|
||
199802151 ; serial, todays date + todays serial #
|
||
8H ; refresh, seconds
|
||
2H ; retry, seconds
|
||
4W ; expire, seconds
|
||
1D ) ; minimum, seconds
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
A zone is only transferred if the serial number on the master is
|
||
larger than on the slave. Every refresh interval the slave will check
|
||
if the master has been updated. If the check fails (because the
|
||
master is unavailable) it will retry the check every retry interval.
|
||
If it continues to fail as long as the expire interval the slave will
|
||
remove the zone from it's filesystem and no longer be a server for it.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
6. Basic security options.
|
||
|
||
By Jamie Norrish
|
||
|
||
|
||
Setting configuration options to reduce the possibility of problems.
|
||
|
||
|
||
There are a few simple steps that you can take which will both make
|
||
your server more secure and potentially reduce its load. The material
|
||
presented here is nothing more than a starting point; if you are
|
||
concerned about security (and you should be), please consult other
|
||
resources on the net (see ``the last chapter'').
|
||
|
||
|
||
The following configuration directives occur in named.conf. If a
|
||
directive occurs in the options section of the file, it applies to all
|
||
zones listed in that file. If it occurs within a zone entry, it
|
||
applies only to that zone. A zone entry overrides an options entry.
|
||
|
||
|
||
6.1. Restricting zone transfers
|
||
|
||
In order for your slave server(s) to be able to answer queries about
|
||
your domain, they must be able to transfer the zone information from
|
||
your primary server. Very few others have a need to do so. Therefore
|
||
restrict zone transfers using the allow-transfer option, assuming
|
||
192.168.1.4 is the IP address of ns.friend.bogus and adding yourself
|
||
for debugging purposes:
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
zone "linux.bogus" {
|
||
allow-transfer { 192.168.1.4; localhost; };
|
||
};
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
By restricting zone transfers you ensure that the only information
|
||
available to people is that which they ask for directly - no one can
|
||
just ask for all the details about your set-up.
|
||
|
||
|
||
6.2. Protecting against spoofing
|
||
|
||
Firstly, disable any queries for domains you don't own, except from
|
||
your internal/local machines. This not only helps prevent malicious
|
||
use of your DNS server, but also reduces unnecessary use of your
|
||
server.
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
options {
|
||
allow-query { 192.168.196.0/24; localhost; };
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
zone "linux.bogus" {
|
||
allow-query { any; };
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
zone "196.168.192.in-addr.arpa" {
|
||
allow-query { any; };
|
||
};
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
Further, disable recursive queries except from internal/local sources.
|
||
This reduces the risk of cache poisoning attacks (where false data is
|
||
fed to your server).
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
options {
|
||
allow-recursion { 192.168.196.0/24; localhost; };
|
||
};
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
6.3. Running named as non-root
|
||
|
||
It is a good idea to run named as a user other than root, so that if
|
||
it is compromised the privileges gained by the cracker are as limited
|
||
as possible. You first have to create a user for named to run under,
|
||
and then modify whatever init script you use that starts named. Pass
|
||
the new user name and group to named using the -u and -g flags.
|
||
|
||
|
||
For example, in Debian GNU/Linux 2.2 you might modify your
|
||
/etc/init.d/bind script to have the following line (where user named
|
||
have been created):
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
start-stop-daemon --start --quiet --exec /usr/sbin/named -- -u named
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
The same can be done with Red Hat and the other distributions.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Dave Lugo has described a secure dual chroot setup
|
||
<http://www.etherboy.com/dns/chrootdns.html> which you may find
|
||
interesting to read, it makes the host your run your named on even
|
||
more secure.
|
||
|
||
|
||
7. A real domain example
|
||
|
||
Where we list some real zone files
|
||
|
||
|
||
Users have suggested that I include a real example of a working domain
|
||
as well as the tutorial example.
|
||
|
||
|
||
I use this example with permission from David Bullock of LAND-5.
|
||
These files were current 24th of September 1996, and were then edited
|
||
to fit BIND 8 restrictions and use extensions by me. So, what you see
|
||
here differs a bit from what you find if you query LAND-5's name
|
||
servers now.
|
||
|
||
|
||
7.1. /etc/named.conf (or /var/named/named.conf)
|
||
|
||
Here we find master zone sections for the two reverse zones needed:
|
||
the 127.0.0 net, as well as LAND-5's 206.6.177 subnet, and a primary
|
||
line for land-5's forward zone land-5.com. Also note that instead of
|
||
stuffing the files in a directory called pz, as I do in this HOWTO, he
|
||
puts them in a directory called zone.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
// Boot file for LAND-5 name server
|
||
|
||
options {
|
||
directory "/var/named";
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
controls {
|
||
inet 127.0.0.1 allow { localhost; } keys { rndc_key; };
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
key "rndc_key" {
|
||
algorithm hmac-md5;
|
||
secret "c3Ryb25nIGVub3VnaCBmb3IgYSBtYW4gYnV0IG1hZGUgZm9yIGEgd29tYW4K";
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
zone "." {
|
||
type hint;
|
||
file "root.hints";
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
zone "0.0.127.in-addr.arpa" {
|
||
type master;
|
||
file "zone/127.0.0";
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
zone "land-5.com" {
|
||
type master;
|
||
file "zone/land-5.com";
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
zone "177.6.206.in-addr.arpa" {
|
||
type master;
|
||
file "zone/206.6.177";
|
||
};
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
If you put this in your named.conf file to play with PLEASE put
|
||
``notify no;'' in the zone sections for the two land-5 zones so as to
|
||
avoid accidents.
|
||
|
||
|
||
7.2. /var/named/root.hints
|
||
|
||
Keep in mind that this file is dynamic, and the one listed here is
|
||
old. You're better off using a new one as explained earlier.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
; <<>> DiG 8.1 <<>> @A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
; (1 server found)
|
||
;; res options: init recurs defnam dnsrch
|
||
;; got answer:
|
||
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 10
|
||
;; flags: qr aa rd; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 13, AUTHORITY: 0, ADDITIONAL: 13
|
||
;; QUERY SECTION:
|
||
;; ., type = NS, class = IN
|
||
|
||
;; ANSWER SECTION:
|
||
. 6D IN NS G.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS J.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS K.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS L.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS M.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS H.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS B.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS C.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS D.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS E.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS I.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
. 6D IN NS F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
|
||
|
||
;; ADDITIONAL SECTION:
|
||
G.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 5w6d16h IN A 192.112.36.4
|
||
J.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 5w6d16h IN A 198.41.0.10
|
||
K.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 5w6d16h IN A 193.0.14.129
|
||
L.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 5w6d16h IN A 198.32.64.12
|
||
M.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 5w6d16h IN A 202.12.27.33
|
||
A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 5w6d16h IN A 198.41.0.4
|
||
H.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 5w6d16h IN A 128.63.2.53
|
||
B.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 5w6d16h IN A 128.9.0.107
|
||
C.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 5w6d16h IN A 192.33.4.12
|
||
D.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 5w6d16h IN A 128.8.10.90
|
||
E.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 5w6d16h IN A 192.203.230.10
|
||
I.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 5w6d16h IN A 192.36.148.17
|
||
F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 5w6d16h IN A 192.5.5.241
|
||
|
||
;; Total query time: 215 msec
|
||
;; FROM: roke.uio.no to SERVER: A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 198.41.0.4
|
||
;; WHEN: Sun Feb 15 01:22:51 1998
|
||
;; MSG SIZE sent: 17 rcvd: 436
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
7.3. /var/named/zone/127.0.0
|
||
|
||
Just the basics, the obligatory SOA record, and a record that maps
|
||
127.0.0.1 to localhost. Both are required. No more should be in this
|
||
file. It will probably never need to be updated, unless your
|
||
nameserver or hostmaster address changes.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
$TTL 3D
|
||
@ IN SOA land-5.com. root.land-5.com. (
|
||
199609203 ; Serial
|
||
28800 ; Refresh
|
||
7200 ; Retry
|
||
604800 ; Expire
|
||
86400) ; Minimum TTL
|
||
NS land-5.com.
|
||
|
||
1 PTR localhost.
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
If you look at a random BIND installation you will probably find that
|
||
the $TTL line is missing as it is here. It was not used before, and
|
||
only version 8.2 of BIND has started to warn about its absence. BIND
|
||
9 requires the $TTL.
|
||
|
||
|
||
7.4. /var/named/zone/land-5.com
|
||
|
||
Here we see the mandatory SOA record, the needed NS records. We can
|
||
see that he has a secondary name server at ns2.psi.net. This is as it
|
||
should be, always have a off site secondary server as backup. We can
|
||
also see that he has a master host called land-5 which takes care of
|
||
many of the different Internet services, and that he's done it with
|
||
CNAMEs (a alternative is using A records).
|
||
|
||
|
||
As you see from the SOA record, the zone file originates at
|
||
land-5.com, the contact person is root@land-5.com. hostmaster is
|
||
another oft used address for the contact person. The serial number is
|
||
in the customary yyyymmdd format with todays serial number appended;
|
||
this is probably the sixth version of zone file on the 20th of
|
||
September 1996. Remember that the serial number must increase
|
||
monotonically, here there is only one digit for todays serial#, so
|
||
after 9 edits he has to wait until tomorrow before he can edit the
|
||
file again. Consider using two digits.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
$TTL 3D
|
||
@ IN SOA land-5.com. root.land-5.com. (
|
||
199609206 ; serial, todays date + todays serial #
|
||
8H ; refresh, seconds
|
||
2H ; retry, seconds
|
||
4W ; expire, seconds
|
||
1D ) ; minimum, seconds
|
||
NS land-5.com.
|
||
NS ns2.psi.net.
|
||
MX 10 land-5.com. ; Primary Mail Exchanger
|
||
TXT "LAND-5 Corporation"
|
||
|
||
localhost A 127.0.0.1
|
||
|
||
router A 206.6.177.1
|
||
|
||
land-5.com. A 206.6.177.2
|
||
ns A 206.6.177.3
|
||
www A 207.159.141.192
|
||
|
||
ftp CNAME land-5.com.
|
||
mail CNAME land-5.com.
|
||
news CNAME land-5.com.
|
||
|
||
funn A 206.6.177.2
|
||
|
||
;
|
||
; Workstations
|
||
;
|
||
ws-177200 A 206.6.177.200
|
||
MX 10 land-5.com. ; Primary Mail Host
|
||
ws-177201 A 206.6.177.201
|
||
MX 10 land-5.com. ; Primary Mail Host
|
||
ws-177202 A 206.6.177.202
|
||
MX 10 land-5.com. ; Primary Mail Host
|
||
ws-177203 A 206.6.177.203
|
||
MX 10 land-5.com. ; Primary Mail Host
|
||
ws-177204 A 206.6.177.204
|
||
MX 10 land-5.com. ; Primary Mail Host
|
||
ws-177205 A 206.6.177.205
|
||
MX 10 land-5.com. ; Primary Mail Host
|
||
; {Many repetitive definitions deleted - SNIP}
|
||
ws-177250 A 206.6.177.250
|
||
MX 10 land-5.com. ; Primary Mail Host
|
||
ws-177251 A 206.6.177.251
|
||
MX 10 land-5.com. ; Primary Mail Host
|
||
ws-177252 A 206.6.177.252
|
||
MX 10 land-5.com. ; Primary Mail Host
|
||
ws-177253 A 206.6.177.253
|
||
MX 10 land-5.com. ; Primary Mail Host
|
||
ws-177254 A 206.6.177.254
|
||
MX 10 land-5.com. ; Primary Mail Host
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
If you examine land-5s nameserver you will find that the host names
|
||
are of the form ws_number. As of late BIND 4 versions named started
|
||
enforcing the restrictions on what characters may be used in host
|
||
names. So that does not work with BIND 8 at all, and I substituted
|
||
'-' (dash) for '_' (underline) for use in this HOWTO. But, as
|
||
mentioned earlier, BIND 9 no longer enforces this restriction.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Another thing to note is that the workstations don't have individual
|
||
names, but rather a prefix followed by the two last parts of the IP
|
||
numbers. Using such a convention can simplify maintenance
|
||
significantly, but can be a bit impersonal, and, in fact, be a source
|
||
of irritation among your customers.
|
||
|
||
|
||
We also see that funn.land-5.com is an alias for land-5.com, but using
|
||
an A record, not a CNAME record.
|
||
|
||
|
||
7.5. /var/named/zone/206.6.177
|
||
|
||
I'll comment on this file below
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
$TTL 3D
|
||
@ IN SOA land-5.com. root.land-5.com. (
|
||
199609206 ; Serial
|
||
28800 ; Refresh
|
||
7200 ; Retry
|
||
604800 ; Expire
|
||
86400) ; Minimum TTL
|
||
NS land-5.com.
|
||
NS ns2.psi.net.
|
||
;
|
||
; Servers
|
||
;
|
||
1 PTR router.land-5.com.
|
||
2 PTR land-5.com.
|
||
2 PTR funn.land-5.com.
|
||
;
|
||
; Workstations
|
||
;
|
||
200 PTR ws-177200.land-5.com.
|
||
201 PTR ws-177201.land-5.com.
|
||
202 PTR ws-177202.land-5.com.
|
||
203 PTR ws-177203.land-5.com.
|
||
204 PTR ws-177204.land-5.com.
|
||
205 PTR ws-177205.land-5.com.
|
||
; {Many repetitive definitions deleted - SNIP}
|
||
250 PTR ws-177250.land-5.com.
|
||
251 PTR ws-177251.land-5.com.
|
||
252 PTR ws-177252.land-5.com.
|
||
253 PTR ws-177253.land-5.com.
|
||
254 PTR ws-177254.land-5.com.
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
The reverse zone is the bit of the setup that seems to cause the most
|
||
grief. It is used to find the host name if you have the IP number of
|
||
a machine. Example: you are an FTP server and accept connections from
|
||
FTP clients. As you are a Norwegian FTP server you want to accept
|
||
more connections from clients in Norway and other Scandinavian
|
||
countries and less from the rest of the world. When you get a
|
||
connection from a client the C library is able to tell you the IP
|
||
number of the connecting machine because the IP number of the client
|
||
is contained in all the packets that are passed over the network. Now
|
||
you can call a function called gethostbyaddr that looks up the name of
|
||
a host given the IP number. Gethostbyaddr will ask a DNS server,
|
||
which will then traverse the DNS looking for the machine. Supposing
|
||
the client connection is from ws-177200.land-5.com. The IP number the
|
||
C library provides to the FTP server is 206.6.177.200. To find out
|
||
the name of that machine we need to find 200.177.6.206.in-addr.arpa.
|
||
The DNS server will first find the arpa. servers, then find in-
|
||
addr.arpa. servers, following the reverse trail through 206, then 6
|
||
and at last finding the server for the 177.6.206.in-addr.arpa zone at
|
||
LAND-5. From which it will finally get the answer that for
|
||
200.177.6.206.in-addr.arpa we have a ``PTR ws-177200.land-5.com''
|
||
record, meaning that the name that goes with 206.6.177.200 is
|
||
ws-177200.land-5.com.
|
||
|
||
|
||
The FTP server prioritizes connections from the Scandinavian
|
||
countries, i.e., *.no, *.se, *.dk, the name ws-177200.land-5.com
|
||
clearly does not match any of those, and the server will put the
|
||
connection in a connection class with less bandwidth and fewer clients
|
||
allowed. If there was no reverse mapping of 206.2.177.200 through the
|
||
in-addr.arpa zone the server would have been unable to find the name
|
||
at all and would have to settle to comparing 206.2.177.200 with *.no,
|
||
*.se and *.dk, none of which will match at all, it may even deny the
|
||
connection for lack of classification.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Some people will tell you that reverse lookup mappings are only
|
||
important for servers, or not important at all. Not so: Many ftp,
|
||
news, IRC and even some http (WWW) servers will not accept connections
|
||
from machines of which they are not able to find the name. So reverse
|
||
mappings for machines are in fact mandatory.
|
||
|
||
|
||
8. Maintenance
|
||
|
||
Keeping it working.
|
||
|
||
|
||
There is one maintenance task you have to do on nameds, other than
|
||
keeping them running. That's keeping the root.hints file updated.
|
||
The easiest way is using dig. First run dig with no arguments you will
|
||
get the root.hints according to your own server. Then ask one of the
|
||
listed root servers with dig @rootserver. You will note that the
|
||
output looks terribly like a root.hints file. Save it to a file (dig
|
||
@e.root-servers.net . ns >root.hints.new) and replace the old
|
||
root.hints with it.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Remember to reload named after replacing the cache file.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Al Longyear sent me this script that can be run automatically to
|
||
update root.hints. Install a crontab entry to run it once a month and
|
||
forget it. The script assumes you have mail working and that the
|
||
mail-alias `hostmaster' is defined. You must hack it to suit your
|
||
setup.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
#!/bin/sh
|
||
#
|
||
# Update the nameserver cache information file once per month.
|
||
# This is run automatically by a cron entry.
|
||
#
|
||
# Original by Al Longyear
|
||
# Updated for BIND 8 by Nicolai Langfeldt
|
||
# Miscelanious error-conditions reported by David A. Ranch
|
||
# Ping test suggested by Martin Foster
|
||
# named up-test suggested by Erik Bryer.
|
||
#
|
||
(
|
||
echo "To: hostmaster <hostmaster>"
|
||
echo "From: system <root>"
|
||
|
||
# Is named up? Check the status of named.
|
||
case `rndc status 2>&1` in
|
||
*refused*)
|
||
echo "named is DOWN. root.hints was NOT updated"
|
||
echo
|
||
exit 0
|
||
;;
|
||
esac
|
||
|
||
PATH=/sbin:/usr/sbin:/bin:/usr/bin:
|
||
export PATH
|
||
# NOTE: /var/named must be writable only by trusted users or this script
|
||
# will cause root compromise/denial of service opportunities.
|
||
cd /var/named 2>/dev/null || {
|
||
echo "Subject: Cannot cd to /var/named, error $?"
|
||
echo
|
||
echo "The subject says it all"
|
||
exit 1
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
# Are we online? Ping a server at your ISP
|
||
case `ping -qnc 1 some.machine.net 2>&1` in
|
||
*'100% packet loss'*)
|
||
echo "Subject: root.hints NOT updated. The network is DOWN."
|
||
echo
|
||
echo "The subject says it all"
|
||
exit 1
|
||
;;
|
||
esac
|
||
|
||
dig @e.root-servers.net . ns >root.hints.new 2> errors
|
||
|
||
case `cat root.hints.new` in
|
||
*NOERROR*)
|
||
# It worked
|
||
:;;
|
||
*)
|
||
echo "Subject: The root.hints file update has FAILED."
|
||
echo
|
||
echo "The root.hints update has failed"
|
||
echo "This is the dig output reported:"
|
||
echo
|
||
cat root.hints.new errors
|
||
exit 1
|
||
;;
|
||
esac
|
||
|
||
echo "Subject: The root.hints file has been updated"
|
||
echo
|
||
echo "The root.hints file has been updated to contain the following
|
||
information:"
|
||
echo
|
||
cat root.hints.new
|
||
|
||
chown root.root root.hints.new
|
||
chmod 444 root.hints.new
|
||
rm -f root.hints.old errors
|
||
mv root.hints root.hints.old
|
||
mv root.hints.new root.hints
|
||
rndc restart
|
||
echo
|
||
echo "The nameserver has been restarted to ensure that the update is complete."
|
||
echo "The previous root.hints file is now called
|
||
/var/named/root.hints.old."
|
||
) 2>&1 | /usr/lib/sendmail -t
|
||
exit 0
|
||
______________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
Some of you might have picked up that the root.hints file is also
|
||
available by ftp from Internic. Please don't use ftp to update
|
||
root.hints, the above method is much more friendly to the net, and
|
||
Internic.
|
||
|
||
|
||
9. Migrating to BIND 9
|
||
|
||
The BIND 9 distribution, and the prepackaged versions too, contains a
|
||
document called migration that contains notes about how to migrate
|
||
from BIND 8 to BIND 9. The document is very straight forward. If you
|
||
installed binary packages it's likely stored in /usr/share/doc/bind*
|
||
or /usr/doc/bind* somewhere.
|
||
|
||
|
||
If you're running BIND 4, you may find a document called
|
||
migration-4to9 in the same place.
|
||
|
||
|
||
10. Questions and Answers
|
||
|
||
Please read this section before mailing me.
|
||
|
||
|
||
1. My named wants a named.boot file
|
||
|
||
|
||
You are reading the wrong HOWTO. Please see the old version of
|
||
this HOWTO, which covers BIND 4, at <http://langfeldt.net/DNS-
|
||
HOWTO/>
|
||
|
||
|
||
2. How do use DNS from inside a firewall?
|
||
|
||
|
||
A hint: forward only;. You might also need
|
||
|
||
|
||
___________________________________________________________________
|
||
query-source port 53;
|
||
|
||
___________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
inside the ``options'' part of the named.conf file as suggested in the
|
||
example ``caching'' section.
|
||
|
||
|
||
3. How do I make DNS rotate through the available addresses for a
|
||
service, say www.busy.site to obtain a load balancing effect, or
|
||
similar?
|
||
|
||
|
||
Make several A records for www.busy.site and use BIND 4.9.3 or
|
||
later. Then BIND will round-robin the answers. It will not work
|
||
with earlier versions of BIND.
|
||
|
||
|
||
4. I want to set up DNS on a (closed) intranet. What do I do?
|
||
|
||
|
||
You drop the root.hints file and just do zone files. That also
|
||
means you don't have to get new hint files all the time.
|
||
|
||
|
||
5. How do I set up a secondary (slave) name server?
|
||
|
||
|
||
If the primary/master server has address 127.0.0.1 you put a line
|
||
like this in the named.conf file of your secondary:
|
||
|
||
|
||
___________________________________________________________________
|
||
zone "linux.bogus" {
|
||
type slave;
|
||
file "sz/linux.bogus";
|
||
masters { 127.0.0.1; };
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
___________________________________________________________________
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
You may list several alternate master servers the zone can be copied
|
||
from inside the masters list, separated by ';' (semicolon).
|
||
|
||
|
||
6. I want BIND running when I'm disconnected from the net.
|
||
|
||
|
||
There are four items regarding this:
|
||
|
||
|
||
· Specific to BIND 8/9, Adam L Rice has sent me this e-mail, about
|
||
how to run DNS painlessly on a dialup machine:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
I have discovered with newer versions of BIND that this
|
||
[<em/shuffeling files, -ed/] is no longer necessary. There is a
|
||
"forward" directive in addition to the "forwarders" directive that
|
||
controls how they are used. The default setting is "forward first",
|
||
which first asks each of the forwarders, and then tries the normal
|
||
approach of doing the legwork itself if that fails. This gives the
|
||
familiar behaviour of gethostbyname() taking an inordinately long time
|
||
when the link is not up. But if "forward only" is set, then BIND
|
||
gives up when it doesn't get a response from the forwarders, and
|
||
gethostbyname() returns immediately. Hence there is no need to
|
||
perform sleight-of-hand with files in /etc and restart the server.
|
||
|
||
In my case, I just added the lines
|
||
|
||
forward only;
|
||
forwarders { 193.133.58.5; };
|
||
|
||
to the options { } section of my named.conf file. It works very
|
||
nicely. The only disadvantage of this is that it reduces an incredibly
|
||
sophisticated piece of DNS software to the status of a dumb cache. To
|
||
some extent, I would just like to run a dumb cache for DNS instead,
|
||
but there doesn't seem to be such a piece of software available for
|
||
Linux.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
· I have received this mail from Ian Clark <ic@deakin.edu.au> where
|
||
he explains his way of doing this:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
I run named on my 'Masquerading' machine here. I have
|
||
two root.hints files, one called root.hints.real which contains
|
||
the real root server names and the other called root.hints.fake
|
||
which contains...
|
||
|
||
----
|
||
; root.hints.fake
|
||
; this file contains no information
|
||
----
|
||
|
||
When I go off line I copy the root.hints.fake file to root.hints and
|
||
restart named.
|
||
|
||
When I go online I copy root.hints.real to root.hints and restart
|
||
named.
|
||
|
||
This is done from ip-down & ip-up respectively.
|
||
|
||
The first time I do a query off line on a domain name named doesn't
|
||
have details for it puts an entry like this in messages..
|
||
|
||
Jan 28 20:10:11 hazchem named[10147]: No root nameserver for class IN
|
||
|
||
which I can live with.
|
||
|
||
It certainly seems to work for me. I can use the nameserver for
|
||
local machines while off the 'net without the timeout delay for
|
||
external domain names and I while on the 'net queries for external
|
||
domains work normally
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
Peter Denison thought that Ian does not go far enough though. He
|
||
writes:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
When connected) serve all cached (and local network) entries immediately
|
||
for non-cached entries, forward to my ISPs nameserver
|
||
When off-line) serve local network queries immediately
|
||
fail all other queries **immediately**
|
||
|
||
The combination of changing the root cache file and forwarding queries
|
||
doesn't work.
|
||
|
||
So, I've set up (with some discussion of this on the local LUG) two nameds
|
||
as follows:
|
||
|
||
named-online: forwards to ISPs nameserver
|
||
master for localnet zone
|
||
master for localnet reverse zone (1.168.192.in-addr.arpa)
|
||
master for 0.0.127.in-addr.arpa
|
||
listens on port 60053
|
||
|
||
named-offline: no forwarding
|
||
"fake" root cache file
|
||
slave for 3 local zones (master is 127.0.0.1:60053)
|
||
listens on port 61053
|
||
|
||
And combined this with port forwarding, to send port 53 to 61053 when
|
||
off-line, and to port 60053 when online. (I'm using the new netfilter
|
||
package under 2.3.18, but the old (ipchains) mechanism should work.)
|
||
|
||
Note that this won't quite work out-of-the-box, as there's a slight bug in
|
||
BIND 8.2, which I have logged wth the developers, preventing a slave
|
||
having a master on the same IP address (even if a different port). It's a
|
||
trivial patch, and should go in soon I hope.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
· I have also received information about how BIND interacts with NFS
|
||
and the portmapper on a mostly offline machine from Karl-Max
|
||
Wanger:
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
I use to run my own named on all my machines which are only
|
||
occasionally connected to the Internet by modem. The nameserver only
|
||
acts as a cache, it has no area of authority and asks back for
|
||
everything at the name servers in the root.cache file. As is usual
|
||
with Slackware, it is started before nfsd and mountd.
|
||
|
||
With one of my machines (a Libretto 30 notebook) I had the problem
|
||
that sometimes I could mount it from another system connected to my
|
||
local LAN, but most of the time it didn't work. I had the same effect
|
||
regardless of using PLIP, a PCMCIA ethernet card or PPP over a serial
|
||
interface.
|
||
|
||
After some time of guessing and experimenting I found out that
|
||
apparently named messed with the process of registration nfsd and
|
||
mountd have to carry out with the portmapper upon startup (I start
|
||
these daemons at boot time as usual). Starting named after nfsd and
|
||
mountd eliminated this problem completely.
|
||
|
||
As there are no disadvantages to expect from such a modified boot
|
||
sequence I'd advise everybody to do it that way to prevent potential
|
||
trouble.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
7. Where does the caching name server store its cache? Is there any
|
||
way I can control the size of the cache?
|
||
|
||
|
||
The cache is completely stored in memory, it is not written to disk
|
||
at any time. Every time you kill named the cache is lost. The
|
||
cache is not controllable in any way. named manages it according
|
||
to some simple rules and that is it. You cannot control the cache
|
||
or the cache size in any way for any reason. If you want to you can
|
||
``fix'' this by hacking named. This is however not recommended.
|
||
|
||
|
||
8. Does named save the cache between restarts? Can I make it save it?
|
||
|
||
|
||
No, named does not save the cache when it dies. That means that
|
||
the cache must be built anew each time you kill and restart named.
|
||
There is no way to make named save the cache in a file. If you
|
||
want you can ``fix'' this by hacking named. This is however not
|
||
recommended.
|
||
|
||
|
||
9. How can I get a domain? I want to set up my own domain called (for
|
||
example) linux-rules.net. How can I get the domain I want assigned
|
||
to me?
|
||
|
||
|
||
Please contact your network service provider. They will be able to
|
||
help you with this. Please note that in most parts of the world
|
||
you need to pay money to get a domain.
|
||
|
||
|
||
10.
|
||
How can I secure my DNS server? How do I set up split DNS?
|
||
|
||
|
||
Both of these are advanced topics. They are both covered in
|
||
<http://www.etherboy.com/dns/chrootdns.html>. I will not explain
|
||
the topics further here.
|
||
11. How to become a bigger time DNS admin.
|
||
|
||
Documentation and tools.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Real Documentation exists. Online and in print. The reading of
|
||
several of these is required to make the step from small time DNS
|
||
admin to a big time one.
|
||
|
||
|
||
I have written The Concise Guide to DNS and BIND (by Nicolai
|
||
Langfeldt, me), published by Que (ISBN 0-7897-2273-9). The book is
|
||
much like this HOWTO, just more details, and a lot more of everything.
|
||
It has also been translated to Polish and published as DNS i BIND by
|
||
Helion ( <http://helion.pl/ksiazki/dnsbin.htm>, ISBN 83-7197-446-9).
|
||
Now in 4th edition is DNS and BIND by Cricket Liu and P. Albitz from
|
||
O'Reilly & Associates (ISBN 0-937175-82-X, affectionately known as the
|
||
Cricket book). Another book is Linux DNS Server Administration, by
|
||
Craig Hunt, published by Sybex (ISBN 0782127363), I have not read it
|
||
yet. Another must for good DNS administration (or good anything for
|
||
that matter) is Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by Robert M.
|
||
Pirsig.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Online you will find my book, along with tons of other books,
|
||
available electronically as a subscription service at
|
||
<http://safari.informit.com/>. There is stuff on
|
||
<http://www.dns.net/dnsrd/> (DNS Resources Directory),
|
||
<http://www.isc.org/bind.html>; A FAQ, a reference manual (the ARM
|
||
should be enclosed in the BIND distribution as well) as well as papers
|
||
and protocol definitions and DNS hacks (these, and most, if not all,
|
||
of the RFCs mentioned below, are also contained in the BIND
|
||
distribution). I have not read most of these. The newsgroup
|
||
<news:comp.protocols.tcp-ip.domains> is about DNS. In addition there
|
||
are a number of RFCs about DNS, the most important are probably the
|
||
ones listed here. Those that have BCP (Best Current Practice) numbers
|
||
are highly recommended.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 2671
|
||
P. Vixie, Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS0) August 1999.
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 2317
|
||
BCP 20, H. Eidnes et. al. Classless IN-ADDR.ARPA delegation,
|
||
March 1998. This is about CIDR, or classless subnet reverse
|
||
lookups.
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 2308
|
||
M. Andrews, Negative Caching of DNS Queries, March 1998. About
|
||
negative caching and the $TTL zone file directive.
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 2219
|
||
BCP 17, M. Hamilton and R. Wright, Use of DNS Aliases for
|
||
Network Services, October 1997. About CNAME usage.
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 2182
|
||
BCP 16, R. Elz et. al., Selection and Operation of Secondary DNS
|
||
Servers, July 1997.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 2052
|
||
A. Gulbrandsen, P. Vixie, A DNS RR for specifying the location
|
||
of services (DNS SRV), October 1996
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 1918
|
||
Y. Rekhter, R. Moskowitz, D. Karrenberg, G. de Groot, E. Lear,
|
||
Address Allocation for Private Internets, 02/29/1996.
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 1912
|
||
D. Barr, Common DNS Operational and Configuration Errors,
|
||
02/28/1996.
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 1912 Errors
|
||
B. Barr Errors in RFC 1912. Only available at
|
||
<http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/~barr/rfc1912-errors.html>
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 1713
|
||
A. Romao, Tools for DNS debugging, 11/03/1994.
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 1712
|
||
C. Farrell, M. Schulze, S. Pleitner, D. Baldoni, DNS Encoding of
|
||
Geographical Location, 11/01/1994.
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 1183
|
||
R. Ullmann, P. Mockapetris, L. Mamakos, C. Everhart, New DNS RR
|
||
Definitions, 10/08/1990.
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 1035
|
||
P. Mockapetris, Domain names - implementation and specification,
|
||
11/01/1987.
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 1034
|
||
P. Mockapetris, Domain names - concepts and facilities,
|
||
11/01/1987.
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 1033
|
||
M. Lottor, Domain administrators operations guide, 11/01/1987.
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 1032
|
||
M. Stahl, Domain administrators guide, 11/01/1987.
|
||
|
||
|
||
RFC 974
|
||
C. Partridge, Mail routing and the domain system, 01/01/1986.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|