mirror of https://github.com/tLDP/LDP
1371 lines
48 KiB
Plaintext
1371 lines
48 KiB
Plaintext
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//OASIS//DTD DocBook V3.1//EN">
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<article>
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<artheader>
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<title>Program Library HOWTO</title>
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<author><firstname>David A.</firstname> <surname>Wheeler</surname>
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</author>
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<address><email>dwheeler@dwheeler.com</email></address>
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<pubdate>version 0.71, 6 September 2000</pubdate>
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<abstract>
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<para>
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This HOWTO for programmers
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discusses how to create and use program libraries on Linux.
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This includes static libraries, shared libraries, and
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dynamically loaded libraries.
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</para>
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</abstract>
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</artheader>
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<sect1 id="introduction">
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<title>Introduction</title>
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<para>
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This HOWTO for programmers
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discusses how to create and use program libraries on Linux
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using the GNU toolset.
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A ``program library'' is simply a file containing compiled code (and data)
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that is to be incorporated later into a program;
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program libraries allow programs to be more modular, faster to recompile,
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and easier to update.
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Program libraries can be divided into three types:
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static libraries, shared libraries, and
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dynamically loaded (DL) libraries.
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</para>
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<para>
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This paper first discusses static libraries, which are installed
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into a program executable before the program is run.
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It then discusses shared libraries, which are loaded at program
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start-up and shared between programs.
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Finally, it discusses dynamically loaded (DL) libraries, which can
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be loaded and used at any time while a program is running.
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DL libraries aren't really a different kind of library format
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(both static and shared libraries can be used as DL libraries);
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instead, the difference is in how DL libraries are used by programmers.
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The HOWTO wraps up with a section with more examples and a section
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with references to other sources of information.
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</para>
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<para>
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This HOWTO discusses only the Executable and Linking Format
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(ELF) format for executables and libraries, the format
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used by nearly all Linux distributions today.
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The GNU gcc toolset can actually handle library formats other than ELF;
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in particular, most Linux distributions can still
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use the obsolete a.out format.
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However, these formats are outside the scope of this paper.
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</para>
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<para>
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It's worth noting that some people use the term
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dynamically <emphasis>linked</emphasis> libraries (DLLs)
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to refer to shared libraries,
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some use the term DLL to mean any library that is used
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as a DL library, and some
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use the term DLL to mean a library meeting either condition.
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No matter which meaning you pick, this HOWTO covers DLLs on Linux.
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</para>
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<para>
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If you're building an application that should port to many systems,
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you might consider using
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<ulink url="http://www.gnu.org/software/libtool/libtool.html">GNU libtool</ulink>
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to build and install libraries instead of using the Linux tools directly.
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GNU libtool is a generic library support script that
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hides the complexity of using shared libraries
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(e.g., creating and installing them) behind a consistent, portable interface.
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On Linux, GNU libtool is built on top of the tools and conventions
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described in this HOWTO.
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For a portable interface to dynamically loaded libraries,
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you can use various portability wrappers.
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GNU libtool includes such a wrapper, called ``libltdl''.
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Alternatively, you could use the glib library (not to be confused
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with glibc) with its portable support for Dynamic Loading of Modules.
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You can learn more about glib at
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<ulink url="http://developer.gnome.org/doc/API/glib/glib-dynamic-loading-of-modules.html">http://developer.gnome.org/doc/API/glib/glib-dynamic-loading-of-modules.html</ulink>.
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Again, on Linux this functionality is implemented using the constructs
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described in this HOWTO.
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If you're actually developing or debugging the code on Linux,
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you'll probably still want the information in this HOWTO.
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</para>
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<para>
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This HOWTO's master location is
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<ulink url="http://www.dwheeler.com/program-library">http://www.dwheeler.com/program-library</ulink>, and it has been
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contributed to the Linux Documentation Project
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(<ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org">http://www.linuxdoc.org</ulink>).
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It is Copyright (C) 2000 David A. Wheeler and is licensed through the
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General Public License (GPL); see the last section for more information.
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</para>
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</sect1>
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<sect1 id="static-libraries">
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<title>Static Libraries</title>
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<para>
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Static libraries are simply a collection of ordinary object files;
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conventionally, static libraries end with the ``.a'' suffix.
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This collection is created using the ar (archiver) program.
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Static libraries aren't used as often as they once were, because of the
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advantages of shared libraries (described below).
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Still, they're sometimes created, they existed first historically,
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and they're simpler to explain.
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</para>
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<para>
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Static libraries permit users to link to programs without having to
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recompile its code, saving recompilation time.
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Note that recompilation time is less important given today's faster compilers,
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so this reason is not as strong as it once was.
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Static libraries are often useful for developers if they wish to
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permit programmers to link to their library, but don't want to give
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the library source code (which is an advantage to the library vendor, but
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obviously not an advantage to the programmer trying to use the library).
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In theory, code in static ELF libraries that is linked into an
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executable should run slightly faster (by 1-5%), but in practice this
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rarely seems to be the case due to other confounding factors.
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</para>
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<para>
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To create a static library, or to add additional object files to
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an existing static library, use a command like this:
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</para>
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<programlisting>
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ar rcs my_library.a file1.o file2.o
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</programlisting>
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<para>
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This sample command adds the object files file1.o and file2.o to the
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static library my_library.a, creating my_library.a if it doesn't
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already exist.
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For more information on creating static libraries, see ar(1).
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</para>
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<para>
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Once you've created a static library, you'll want to use it.
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You can use a static library by invoking it as part of the compilation
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and linking process when creating a program executable.
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If you're using gcc(1) to generate your executable, you can use the -l
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option to specify the library; see info:gcc for more information.
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You can also use the linker ld(1) directly, using its -l and -L options;
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however, in most cases it's better to use gcc(1) since the interface of
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ld(1) is more likely to change.
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</para>
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</sect1>
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<sect1 id="shared-libraries">
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<title>Shared Libraries</title>
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<para>
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Shared libraries are libraries that are loaded by programs when they start.
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When a shared library is installed properly, all programs that start afterwards
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automatically use the new shared library.
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It's actually much more flexible and sophisticated than this, because the
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approach used by Linux permits you to:
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<itemizedlist>
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<listitem><para>update libraries and still support programs that want to use older,
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non-backward-compatible versions of those libraries;</para>
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</listitem>
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<listitem><para>override specific libraries or even specific functions
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in a library when executing a particular program.</para>
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</listitem>
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<listitem><para>do all this while programs are running using existing libraries.
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</para>
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</listitem>
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</itemizedlist>
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</para>
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<sect2>
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<title>Conventions</title>
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<para>
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For shared libraries to support all of these desired properties,
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a number of conventions and guidelines must be followed.
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You need to understand the difference between a library's
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names, in particular its ``soname'' and ``real name'' (and how they interact).
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You also need to understand where they should be placed in the filesystem.
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</para>
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<sect3>
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<title>Shared Library Names</title>
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<para>
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Every shared library has a special name called the ``soname''.
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The soname has the prefix ``lib'', the name of the library,
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the phrase ``.so'', followed by a period and a
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version number that is incremented whenever the interface changes
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(as a special exception, the lowest-level C libraries don't start
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with ``lib'').
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A fully-qualified soname includes as a prefix the directory it's in;
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on a working system a fully-qualified soname is simply a symbolic
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link to the shared library's ``real name''.
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</para>
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<para>
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Every shared library also has a ``real name'', which is the filename
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containing the actual library code.
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The real name adds to the soname a period, a
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minor number, another period, and the release number.
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The last period and release number are optional.
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The minor number and release number
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support configuration control by letting you know exactly what version(s)
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of the library are installed. Note that these numbers might not be
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the same as the numbers used to describe the library in documentation,
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although that does make things easier.
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</para>
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<para>
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In addition, there's the name that the compiler uses when requesting a library,
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(I'll call it the ``linker name''), which is simply the soname without
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any version number.
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</para>
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<para>
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The key to managing shared libraries is the separation of these names.
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Programs, when they internally list the shared libraries they need,
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should only list the soname they need.
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Conversely, when you create a shared library, you only create the
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library with a specific filename (with more detailed version information).
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When you install a new version of a library, you
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install it in one of a few special directories and then run the
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program ldconfig(8).
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ldconfig examines the existing files and creates the sonames as
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symbolic links to the real names, as well as setting up the
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cache file /etc/ld.so.cache (described in a moment).
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</para>
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<para>
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ldconfig doesn't set up the linker names; typically this is done during
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library installation, and the linker name is simply created as a symbolic
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link to the ``latest'' soname or the latest real name.
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I would recommend having the linker name be a symbolic link to the soname,
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since in most cases if you update the library
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you'd like to automatically use it when linking.
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I asked H. J. Lu why ldconfig doesn't automatically set up the linker names.
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His explanation was basically that
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you might want to run code using the latest version of a library,
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but might instead want <emphasis>development</emphasis> to link
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against an old (possibly incompatible) library.
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Therefore, ldconfig makes no assumptions about what you want programs to
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link to, so installers must specifically modify symbolic links to
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update what the linker will use for a library.
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<!-- Private correspondance, 10-April-2000 -->
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</para>
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<para>
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Thus, <filename>/usr/lib/libreadline.so.3</filename>
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is a fully-qualified soname, which
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ldconfig would set to be a symbolic link to some realname like
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<filename>/usr/lib/libreadline.so.3.0</filename>.
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There should also be a linker name,
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<filename>/usr/lib/libreadline.so</filename>
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which could be a symbolic link referring to
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<filename>/usr/lib/libreadline.so.3</filename>.
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</para>
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</sect3>
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<sect3>
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<title>Filesystem Placement</title>
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<para>
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Shared libraries must be placed somewhere in the filesystem.
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Most open source software tends to follow the GNU standards; for more
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information see the info file documentation at
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<ulink url="info:standards#Directory_Variables">
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info:standards#Directory_Variables</ulink>.
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The GNU standards recommend
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installing by default all libraries in /usr/local/lib
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when distributing source code
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(and all commands should go into /usr/local/bin).
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They also define the convention for overriding these defaults
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and for invoking the installation routines.
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</para>
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<para>
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The Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) discusses what should go where
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in a distribution (see
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<ulink url="http://www.pathname.com/fhs">http://www.pathname.com/fhs</ulink>).
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According to the FHS, most libraries should
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be installed in /usr/lib, but libraries required for startup
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should be in /lib and libraries that are not
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part of the system should be in /usr/local/lib.
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</para>
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<para>
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There isn't really a conflict between these two documents;
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the GNU standards recommend the default for developers
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of source code, while the FHS recommends the default for distributors
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(who selectively override the source code defaults, usually via the
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system's package management system).
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In practice this works nicely: the ``latest'' (possibly buggy!) source
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code that you download automatically installs itself in the ``local''
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directory (<filename>/usr/local</filename>),
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and once that code has matured the package managers can
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trivially override the default to place the code in the standard
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place for distributions.
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Note that if your library calls programs that can only be called via
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libraries, you should place those programs in /usr/local/libexec
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(which becomes /usr/libexec in a distribution).
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One complication is that Red Hat-derived systems don't include
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/usr/local/lib by default in their search for libraries;
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see the discussion below about /etc/ld.so.conf.
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Other standard library locations include
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/usr/X11R6/lib for X-windows.
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Note that /lib/security is used for PAM modules, but those are usually
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loaded as DL libraries (also discussed below).
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</para>
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</sect3>
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</sect2>
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<sect2>
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<title>How Libraries are Used</title>
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<para>
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On GNU glibc-based systems, including all Linux systems,
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starting up an ELF binary executable automatically causes the program loader
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to be loaded and run.
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On Linux systems, this loader is named
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/lib/ld-linux.so.X (where X is a version number).
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This loader,
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in turn, finds and loads all other shared libraries used by the program.
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</para>
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<para>
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The list of directories to be searched is stored in the file /etc/ld.so.conf.
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Many Red Hat-derived distributions don't normally include /usr/local/lib in the
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file /etc/ld.so.conf. I consider this a bug, and adding
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/usr/local/lib to /etc/ld.so.conf is a common ``fix'' required
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to run many programs on Red Hat-derived systems.
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</para>
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<para>
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If you want to just override a few functions in a library, but
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keep the rest of the library, you can enter the names of overriding
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libraries (.o files) in /etc/ld.so.preload; these
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``preloading'' libraries will take precedence over the standard set.
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This preloading file is typically used for emergency patches;
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a distribution usually won't include such a file when delivered.
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</para>
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<para>
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Searching all of these directories at program start-up
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would be grossly inefficient, so a caching arrangement is actually used.
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The program ldconfig(8) by default reads in the file /etc/ld.so.conf,
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sets up the appropriate symbolic links in the dynamic link directories
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(so they'll follow the standard conventions), and then writes a cache to
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/etc/ld.so.cache that's then used by other programs.
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This greatly speeds up access to libraries.
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The implication is that
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ldconfig must be run whenever a DLL is added, when a DLL is removed,
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or when the set of DLL directories changes;
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running ldconfig is often one of the steps performed by package
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managers when installing a library.
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On start-up, then, the dynamic loader actually uses
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the file /etc/ld.so.cache and then loads the libraries it needs.
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</para>
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</sect2>
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<sect2>
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<title>Environment Variables</title>
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<para>
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Various environment variables can control this process,
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and in fact there are environment variables that permit
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you to override this process.
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For example, you can temporarily substitute a different library for
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this particular execution.
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In Linux, the environment variable LD_LIBRARY_PATH
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is a colon-separated set of directories where libraries should be
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searched for first, before
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the standard set of directories; this is useful when debugging
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a new library or using a nonstandard library for special purposes.
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The environment variable LD_PRELOAD lists object files with functions that
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override the standard set, just as /etc/ld.so.preload does.
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These are implemented by the loader /lib/ld-linux.so.
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I should note that, while LD_LIBRARY_PATH works on many
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Unix-like systems, it doesn't work on all;
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for example, similar functionality is available on HP-UX but as
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SHLIB_PATH, and on AIX this functionality is through LIBPATH.
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<!-- Source for the systems that don't use LD_LIBRARY_PATH:
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Drazen Kacar dave@srce.hr, 20 Jul 2000 13:27:53 +0200,
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Mailing list gnome-devel-list@gnome.org -->
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Also, LD_LIBRARY_PATH is handy for development and testing, but shouldn't
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be modified by an installation process for normal use; see
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``Why LD_LIBRARY_PATH is Bad'' at
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<ulink url="http://www.visi.com/~barr/ldpath.html">http://www.visi.com/~barr/ldpath.html</ulink>
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for an explanation of why.
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</para>
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<para>
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There are actually a number of other environment variables that control
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the loading process; their names begin with LD_ or RTLD_.
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Most of the others are for low-level debugging of the loader process or
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for implementing specialized capabilities.
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Most of them aren't well-documented; if you need to know about them, the
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best way to learn about them is to read the source code.
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</para>
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<para>
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Permitting user control over dynamically linked libraries
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would be disastrous for setuid/setgid programs
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if special measures weren't taken.
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Therefore, in GNU loader, if the
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program is setuid or setgid these variables
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(and other similar variables) are ignored or greatly limited in
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what they can do.
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The loader determines if a program is setuid or setgid by
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checking the program's credentials; if the uid and euid differ,
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or the gid and the egid differ,
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the loader presumes the program is setuid/setgid (or descended from one)
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and therefore greatly limits its abilities to control linking.
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If you read the GNU glibc library source code, you can see this;
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see especially the files elf/rtld.c and sysdeps/generic/dl-sysdep.c.
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This means that if you cause the uid and gid
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to equal the euid and egid, and then call a program,
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these variables will have full effect.
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Other Unix-like systems handle the situation differently but
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for the same reason: a setuid/setgid program
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should not be unduly affected by the environment variables set.
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</para>
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</sect2>
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<sect2>
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<title>Creating a Shared Library</title>
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<para>
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Creating a shared library is easy.
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First, create the object files that will go into the shared
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library using the gcc -fPIC flag (this enables the ``position independent
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code'' generation, a requirement for shared libraries).
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Then create the shared library using this format:
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</para>
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<programlisting>
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gcc -shared -Wl,-soname,<replaceable>your_soname</replaceable> \
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-o <replaceable>library_name</replaceable> <replaceable>file_list</replaceable> <replaceable>library_list</replaceable>
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</programlisting>
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<para>
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Here's an example, which creates two object files (a.o and b.o) and then
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creates a shared library that contains both of them.
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Note that this compilation includes debugging information (-g) and
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will generate warnings (-Wall), which aren't required for shared libraries
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but are recommended.
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The compilation generates object files (using -c), and obviously includes
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the required -fPIC option:
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</para>
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<programlisting>
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gcc -fPIC -g -c -Wall a.c
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gcc -fPIC -g -c -Wall b.c
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gcc -shared -Wl,-soname,libmystuff.so.1 \
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-o libmystuff.so.1.0.1 a.o b.o -lc
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</programlisting>
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<para>
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Here are a few points worth noting:
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<itemizedlist>
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<listitem><para>Don't strip the resulting library, and don't use the
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compiler option -fomit-frame-pointer unless you really have to.
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The resulting library will work, but these actions make debuggers
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mostly useless.</para>
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</listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>Use -fPIC to generate code,
|
|
not -fpic (the latter may not work, because if branches need large
|
|
displacements -fpic may not generate fully position-independent code).</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
</itemizedlist>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>Installing and Using a Shared Library</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
Once you've created a shared library, you'll want to install it.
|
|
The simple approach is simply to copy the library into one of the
|
|
standard directories (e.g., /usr/lib) and run ldconfig(8).
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
If you can't do that (e.g., you don't have the right to modify
|
|
/usr/lib), then you can use environment variables to control things.
|
|
First, you'll need to create the shared libraries somewhere.
|
|
Then, you'll need to set up the necesary symbolic links, in particular
|
|
a link from a soname to the real name (as well as from a versionless
|
|
soname, that is, a soname that ends in ``.so'' for users who don't specify
|
|
a version at all). The simplest approach is to run:
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
ldconfig -n <replaceable>directory_with_shared_libraries</replaceable>
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Then you can set LD_LIBRARY_PATH, which is a colon-separated
|
|
list of directories in which to search for shared libraries before
|
|
the usual places.
|
|
If you're using bash, you could invoke my_program this way using:
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
LD_LIBRARY_PATH=.:$LD_LIBRARY_PATH my_program
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
If you want to override just a few selected functions,
|
|
you can do this by creating an overriding object file and setting
|
|
LD_PRELOAD; the functions in this object file will override just
|
|
those functions.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Usually you can update libraries without concern; if there was an API
|
|
change, the library creator will change the soname.
|
|
However, if a program breaks on an update to a library that kept the
|
|
same soname, you can force it to use the older library version by
|
|
copying the old library back somewhere,
|
|
renaming the program (say to the old name plus ``.orig''),
|
|
and then create a small
|
|
``wrapper'' script that resets the library to use and
|
|
calls the real (renamed) program.
|
|
You could place the old library in its own special area, if you like,
|
|
though the numbering conventions do permit multiple versions to live
|
|
in the same directory.
|
|
The wrapper script could look something like this:
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
#!/bin/sh
|
|
export LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/usr/local/my_lib:$LD_LIBRARY_PATH
|
|
exec /usr/bin/my_program.orig $*
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
You can see the list of the shared libraries used by a program using ldd(1).
|
|
So, for example, you can see the shared libraries used by ls by typing:
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
ldd /bin/ls
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
Generally you'll see a list of the sonames being depended on, along with
|
|
the directory that those names resolve to.
|
|
In practically all cases you'll have at least two dependencies:
|
|
<itemizedlist>
|
|
<listitem><para>/lib/ld-linux.so.N (where N is 1 or more, usually at least 2).
|
|
This is the library that loads all other libraries.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>libc.so.N (where N is 6 or more).
|
|
This is the C library. Even other languages tend to use the C
|
|
library (at least to implement their own libraries), so most programs
|
|
at least include this one.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
</itemizedlist>
|
|
Beware: do <emphasis>not</emphasis> run ldd on a program you don't trust;
|
|
as is clearly stated in the ldd(1) manual, ldd works by calling the
|
|
program directly; an untrusted program could execute unexpected code.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>Incompatible Libraries</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
When a new version of a library is binary-incompatible with the old one
|
|
the soname needs to change.
|
|
In C, there are four basic reasons that a library would cease to
|
|
be binary compatible:
|
|
<orderedlist>
|
|
<listitem><para>The behavior of a function changes so that it no longer
|
|
meets its original specification,</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>Exported data items change (exception: adding optional
|
|
items to the ends of structures is okay, as long as those structures
|
|
are only allocated within the library).</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>An exported function is removed.</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>The interface of an exported function changes.</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
</orderedlist>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
If you can avoid these reasons, you can keep your libraries binary-compatible. Said another way, you can keep your
|
|
Application Binary Interface (ABI) compatible if you avoid such changes.
|
|
For example, you might want to add new functions but not delete the old ones.
|
|
You can add items to structures but only if you can make sure that old
|
|
programs won't be sensitive to such changes by adding items
|
|
only to the end of the structure, only allowing the library (and not the
|
|
application) to allocate the structure, making the extra items optional
|
|
(or having the library fill them in), and so on.
|
|
Watch out - you probably
|
|
can't expand structures if users are using them in arrays.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
For C++ (and other languages supporting compiled-in templates and/or
|
|
compiled dispatched methods), the situation is trickier.
|
|
All of the above issues apply, plus many more issues.
|
|
The reason is that some information is implemented ``under the covers''
|
|
in the compiled code, resulting in dependencies that may not be obvious
|
|
if you don't know how C++ is typically implemented.
|
|
Strictly speaking, they aren't ``new'' issues, it's just that compiled C++
|
|
code invokes them in ways that may be surprising to you.
|
|
The following is a (probably incomplete) list of things that you cannot
|
|
do in C++ and retain binary compatibility, as reported by
|
|
<ulink url="http://www.trolltech.com/developer/faq/tech.html#bincomp">
|
|
Troll Tech's Technical FAQ</ulink>:
|
|
<orderedlist>
|
|
<listitem><para>
|
|
add reimplementations of virtual functions
|
|
(unless it it safe for older binaries to call the original implementation),
|
|
because the compiler evaluates SuperClass::virtualFunction() calls
|
|
at compile-time (not link-time).
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>
|
|
add or remove virtual member functions, because
|
|
this would change the size and layout of the vtbl of every subclass.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>
|
|
change the type of any data members or move any data members
|
|
that can be accessed via inline member functions.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>
|
|
change the class hierarchy, except to add new leaves.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>
|
|
add or remove private data members, because
|
|
this would change the size and layout of every subclass.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>
|
|
remove public or protected member functions unless they are inline.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>
|
|
make a public or protected member function inline.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>
|
|
change what an inline function does, unless the old version continues working.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>
|
|
change the access rights
|
|
(i.e. public, protected or private) of a member function in a
|
|
portable program, because
|
|
some compilers mangle the access rights into the function name.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
</orderedlist>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Given this lengthy list, developers of C++ libraries in particular must
|
|
plan for more than occasional updates that break binary compatibility.
|
|
Fortunately, on Unix-like systems (including Linux) you can have
|
|
multiple versions of a library loaded at the same time, so while there
|
|
is some disk space loss, users can still run ``old'' programs needing
|
|
old libraries.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
|
|
<sect1 id="dl-libraries">
|
|
<title>Dynamically Loaded (DL) Libraries</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
Dynamically loaded (DL) libraries are libraries that are loaded
|
|
at times other than during the startup of a program.
|
|
They're particularly useful for implementing plugins or modules, because
|
|
they permit waiting to load the plugin until it's needed.
|
|
For example, the Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM) system
|
|
uses DL libraries to permit administrators to configure and reconfigure
|
|
authentication.
|
|
They're also useful for implementing interpreters that wish to
|
|
occasionally compile their code into machine code and use the compiled
|
|
version for efficiency purposes, all without stopping.
|
|
This approach can be useful in implementing
|
|
a just-in-time compiler or multi-user dungeon (MUD).
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
In Linux, DL libraries aren't actually special from the point-of-view of their
|
|
format; they are built as standard object files or standard shared libraries
|
|
as discussed above.
|
|
The main difference is that the libraries aren't automatically loaded
|
|
at program link time or start-up; instead, there is an API for
|
|
opening a library, looking up symbols, handling errors, and closing the library.
|
|
C users will need to include the header file <dlfcn.h>
|
|
to use this API.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The interface used by Linux is essentially the same as that used in Solaris,
|
|
which I'll call the ``dlopen()'' API.
|
|
However, this same interface is not supported by all platforms;
|
|
HP-UX uses the different shl_load() mechanism, and Windows platforms use
|
|
DLLs with a completely different interface.
|
|
If your goal is wide portability, you probably ought to consider using
|
|
some wrapping library that hides differences between platforms.
|
|
One approach is
|
|
the glib library with its support for Dynamic Loading of Modules; it uses
|
|
the underlying dynamic loading routines of the platform to implement
|
|
a portable interface to these functions.
|
|
You can learn more about glib at
|
|
<ulink url="http://developer.gnome.org/doc/API/glib/glib-dynamic-loading-of-modules.html">http://developer.gnome.org/doc/API/glib/glib-dynamic-loading-of-modules.html</ulink>.
|
|
Since the glib interface is well-explained in its documentation,
|
|
I won't discuss it further here.
|
|
Another approach is to use libltdl, which is part of
|
|
<ulink url="http://www.gnu.org/software/libtool/libtool.html">GNU libtool</ulink>.
|
|
If you want much more functionality this, you might want to
|
|
look into a CORBA Object Request Broker (ORB).
|
|
If you're still interested in directly using the interface supported
|
|
by Linux and Solaris, read on.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>dlopen()</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
The dlopen(3) function opens a library and prepares it for use.
|
|
In C its prototype is:
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
void * dlopen(const char *filename, int flag);
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
If filename begins with ``/'' (i.e., it's an absolute path),
|
|
dlopen() won't search for a library.
|
|
Otherwise, dlopen() will search for the library
|
|
in the following order:
|
|
<orderedlist>
|
|
<listitem><para>A colon-separated list of directories in the user's
|
|
LD_LIBRARY path environment variable.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>The list of libraries specified in /etc/ld.so.cache.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>/usr/lib, followed by /lib.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
</orderedlist>
|
|
In dlopen(), the value of
|
|
<replaceable>flag</replaceable> must be either RTLD_LAZY,
|
|
meaning
|
|
``resolve undefined symbols as code from the dynamic library is executed'',
|
|
or RTLD_NOW,
|
|
meaning ``resolve all undefined symbols before
|
|
dlopen() returns and fail if this cannot be done''.
|
|
RTLD_GLOBAL may be optionally or'ed with either value
|
|
in <replaceable>flag</replaceable>,
|
|
meaning that the external symbols defined in the library will be made
|
|
available to subsequently loaded libraries.
|
|
While you're debugging, you'll probably want to use RTLD_NOW; using
|
|
RTLD_LAZY can create inscrutible errors if there are unresolved references.
|
|
Using RTLD_NOW makes opening the library take slightly longer
|
|
(but it speeds up lookups later); if this causes a user interface problem
|
|
you can switch to RTLD_LAZY later.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
If the libraries depend on each other (e.g., X depends on Y), then you
|
|
need to load the dependees first (in this example, load Y first, and then X).
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The return value of dlopen() is a ``handle'' that should be considered an
|
|
opaque value to be used by the other DL library routines.
|
|
dlopen() will return NULL if the attempt to load does not succeed, and
|
|
you need to check for this.
|
|
If the same library is loaded more than once with dlopen(),
|
|
the same file handle is returned.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
If the library exports a routine named _init, then that
|
|
code is executed before dlopen() returns.
|
|
You can use this fact in your own libraries to implement
|
|
initialization routines.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>dlerror()</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
Errors can be reported by calling dlerror(), which returns a string
|
|
describing the error from the last call to dlopen(), dlsym(), or dlclose().
|
|
One oddity is that after calling dlerror(), future calls to dlerror()
|
|
will return NULL until another error has been encountered.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>dlsym()</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
There's no point in loading a DL library if you can't use it.
|
|
The main routine for using a DL library is dlsym(3), which
|
|
looks up the value of a symbol in a given (opened) library.
|
|
This function is defined as:
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
void * dlsym(void *handle, char *symbol);
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
the handle is the value returned from dlopen, and symbol is a
|
|
NIL-terminated string.
|
|
If you can avoid it, don't store the result of dlsym() into a void*
|
|
pointer, because then you'll have to cast it each time you use it
|
|
(and you'll give less information to other people trying to
|
|
maintain the program).
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
dlsym() will return a NULL result if the symbol wasn't found.
|
|
If you know that the symbol could never have the value of NULL or zero,
|
|
that may be fine, but there's a potential ambiguity otherwise: if you got
|
|
a NULL, does that mean there is no such symbol, or that NULL is the
|
|
value of the symbol?
|
|
The standard solution is to call dlerror() first (to clear any error
|
|
condition that may have existed), then call dlsym() to request a symbol,
|
|
then call dlerror() again to see if an error occurred.
|
|
A code snippet would look like this:
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
dlerror(); /* clear error code */
|
|
s = (actual_type) dlsym(handle, symbol_being_searched_for);
|
|
if ((err = dlerror()) != NULL) {
|
|
/* handle error, the symbol wasn't found */
|
|
} else {
|
|
/* symbol found, its value is in s */
|
|
}
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>dlclose()</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
The converse of dlopen() is dlclose(), which closes a DL library.
|
|
The dl library maintains link counts for
|
|
dynamic file handles, so a dynamic library is not actually deallocated
|
|
until dlclose has been called on it as many times as
|
|
dlopen has succeeded on it.
|
|
Thus, it's not a problem for the same program
|
|
to load the same library multiple times.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>DL Library Example</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
Here's an example from the man page of dlopen(3).
|
|
This example loads the math library and prints the cosine of 2.0, and
|
|
it checks for errors at every step (recommended):
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
<![CDATA[
|
|
|
|
#include <stdio.h>
|
|
#include <dlfcn.h>
|
|
|
|
int main(int argc, char **argv) {
|
|
void *handle;
|
|
double (*cosine)(double);
|
|
char *error;
|
|
|
|
handle = dlopen ("/lib/libm.so", RTLD_LAZY);
|
|
if (!handle) {
|
|
fputs (dlerror(), stderr);
|
|
exit(1);
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
cosine = dlsym(handle, "cos");
|
|
if ((error = dlerror()) != NULL) {
|
|
fputs(error, stderr);
|
|
exit(1);
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
printf ("%f\n", (*cosine)(2.0));
|
|
dlclose(handle);
|
|
}
|
|
]]>
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
If this program were in a file named "foo.c",
|
|
you would build the program with the following command:
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
gcc -Wl,export-dynamic -o foo foo.c -ldl
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The ``-Wl,export-dynamic'' option isn't actually required, but you
|
|
may sometimes find it useful.
|
|
It is defined in ld(1):
|
|
``When creating an ELF file, [this option adds] all symbols to the
|
|
dynamic symbol table. Normally, the dynamic symbol
|
|
table contains only symbols which are used by a dynamic object.
|
|
This option is needed for some uses of dlopen.''
|
|
Note that you could say ``-rdynamic'' instead of ``-Wl,export-dynamic''
|
|
if you only work with Linux systems, but according to the ELF documentation
|
|
the ``-rdynamic'' flag doesn't always work for gcc on non-Linux systems.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
|
|
<sect1 id="miscellaneous">
|
|
<title>Miscellaneous</title>
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>nm command</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
The nm(1) command can report the list of
|
|
symbols in a given library.
|
|
It works on both static and shared libraries.
|
|
For a given library nm(1) can list the symbol names defined, each
|
|
symbol's value, and the symbol's type.
|
|
It can also identify where the symbol was defined in the source code
|
|
(by filename and line number), if that information is available in
|
|
the library (see the -l option).
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The symbol type requires a little more explanation.
|
|
The type is displayed as a letter; lowercase means that the symbol is
|
|
local, while uppercase means that the symbol is global (external).
|
|
Typical symbol types include
|
|
T (a normal definition in the code section),
|
|
D (initialized data section),
|
|
B (uninitialized data section),
|
|
U (undefined; the symbol is used by the library
|
|
but not defined by the library), and
|
|
W (weak; if another library also defines this symbol, that definition
|
|
overrides this one).
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
If you know the name of a function, but
|
|
you truly can't remember what library it was defined in, you can use
|
|
nm's ``-o'' option (which prefixes the filename in each line) along
|
|
with grep to find the library name. From a Bourne shell, you
|
|
can search all the libraries in /lib, /usr/lib, direct subdirectories of
|
|
/usr/lib, and /usr/local/lib for ``cos'' as follows:
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
nm -o /lib/* /usr/lib/* /usr/lib/*/* \
|
|
/usr/local/lib/* 2> /dev/null | grep 'cos$'
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
<para>
|
|
Much more information about nm can be found in the nm ``info''
|
|
documentation locally installed at
|
|
<ulink url="info:binutils#nm">info:binutils#nm</ulink>.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>Shared Libraries Can Be Scripts</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
It's worth noting that the GNU loader
|
|
permits shared libraries to be text files using a
|
|
specialized scripting language instead of the usual library format.
|
|
This is useful for indirectly combining other libraries.
|
|
For example, here's the listing of
|
|
<filename>/usr/lib/libc.so</filename>
|
|
on one of my systems:
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
/* GNU ld script
|
|
Use the shared library, but some functions are only in
|
|
the static library, so try that secondarily. */
|
|
GROUP ( /lib/libc.so.6 /usr/lib/libc_nonshared.a )
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
<para>
|
|
For more information about this, see the texinfo documentation on ld
|
|
linker scripts (ld command language).
|
|
General information is at
|
|
info:ld#Options and info:ld#Commands,
|
|
with likely commands discussed in
|
|
info:ld#Option Commands.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>GNU libtool</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
If you're building an application that should port to many systems,
|
|
you might consider using
|
|
<ulink url="http://www.gnu.org/software/libtool/libtool.html">GNU libtool</ulink>
|
|
to build and install libraries.
|
|
GNU libtool is a generic library support script.
|
|
Libtool hides the complexity of using shared libraries
|
|
behind a consistent, portable interface.
|
|
Libtool provides portable interfaces to
|
|
create object files, link libraries (static and shared), link executables,
|
|
debug executables, install libraries, install executables.
|
|
It also includes libltdl, a portability wrapper for
|
|
dynamically loading programs.
|
|
For more information, see its documentation at
|
|
<ulink url="http://www.gnu.org/software/libtool/manual.html">http://www.gnu.org/software/libtool/manual.html</ulink>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
|
|
<sect1 id="more-examples">
|
|
<title>More Examples</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
The following are more examples of all three approaches
|
|
(static, shared, and dynamically loaded libraries).
|
|
File libhello.c is a trivial library,
|
|
with libhello.h as its header.
|
|
File demo_use.c is a trivial caller of the library.
|
|
This is followed by commented scripts (script_static and script_dynamic)
|
|
showing how to use the library as a static and shared library.
|
|
This is followed by demo_dynamic.c and script_dynamic, which show
|
|
how to use the shared library as a dynamically loaded library.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<!-- BEGINNING OF demo.sgml -->
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>File libhello.c</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
<![CDATA[
|
|
/* libhello.c - demonstrate library use. */
|
|
|
|
#include <stdio.h>
|
|
|
|
void hello(void) {
|
|
printf("Hello, library world.\n");
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
]]>
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>File libhello.h</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
<![CDATA[
|
|
/* libhello.h - demonstrate library use. */
|
|
|
|
|
|
void hello(void);
|
|
|
|
]]>
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>File demo_use.c</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
<![CDATA[
|
|
/* demo_use.c -- demonstrate direct use of the "hello" routine */
|
|
|
|
#include "libhello.h"
|
|
|
|
int main(void) {
|
|
hello();
|
|
return 0;
|
|
}
|
|
]]>
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>File script_static</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
<![CDATA[
|
|
#!/bin/sh
|
|
# Static library demo
|
|
|
|
# Create static library's object file, libhello-static.o.
|
|
# I'm using the name libhello-static to clearly
|
|
# differentiate the static library from the
|
|
# dynamic library examples, but you don't need to use
|
|
# "-static" in the names of your
|
|
# object files or static libraries.
|
|
|
|
gcc -Wall -g -c -o libhello-static.o libhello.c
|
|
|
|
# Create static library.
|
|
|
|
ar rcs libhello-static.a libhello-static.o
|
|
|
|
# At this point we could just copy libhello-static.a
|
|
# somewhere else to use it.
|
|
# For demo purposes, we'll just keep the library
|
|
# in the current directory.
|
|
|
|
# Compile demo_use program file.
|
|
|
|
gcc -Wall -g -c demo_use.c -o demo_use.o
|
|
|
|
# Create demo_use program; -L. causes "." to be searched during
|
|
# creation of the program. Note that this command causes
|
|
# the relevant object file in libhello-static.a to be
|
|
# incorporated into file demo_use_static.
|
|
|
|
gcc -g -o demo_use_static demo_use.o -L. -lhello-static
|
|
|
|
# Execute the program.
|
|
|
|
./demo_use_static
|
|
]]>
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>File script_shared</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
<![CDATA[
|
|
#!/bin/sh
|
|
# Shared library demo
|
|
|
|
# Create shared library's object file, libhello.o.
|
|
|
|
gcc -fPIC -Wall -g -c libhello.c
|
|
|
|
# Create shared library.
|
|
# Use -lc to link it against C library, since libhello
|
|
# depends on the C library.
|
|
|
|
gcc -g -shared -Wl,-soname,libhello.so.0 \
|
|
-o libhello.so.0.0 libhello.o -lc
|
|
|
|
# At this point we could just copy libhello.so.0.0 into
|
|
# some directory, say /usr/local/lib.
|
|
|
|
# Now we need to call ldconfig to fix up the symbolic links.
|
|
|
|
# Set up the soname. We could just execute:
|
|
# ln -sf libhello.so.0.0 libhello.so.0
|
|
# but let's let ldconfig figure it out.
|
|
|
|
/sbin/ldconfig -n .
|
|
|
|
# Set up the linker name.
|
|
# In a more sophisticated setting, we'd need to make
|
|
# sure that if there was an existing linker name,
|
|
# and if so, check if it should stay or not.
|
|
|
|
ln -sf libhello.so.0 libhello.so
|
|
|
|
# Compile demo_use program file.
|
|
|
|
gcc -Wall -g -c demo_use.c -o demo_use.o
|
|
|
|
# Create program demo_use.
|
|
# The -L. causes "." to be searched during creation
|
|
# of the program; note that this does NOT mean that "."
|
|
# will be searched when the program is executed.
|
|
|
|
gcc -g -o demo_use demo_use.o -L. -lhello
|
|
|
|
# Execute the program. Note that we need to tell the program
|
|
# where the shared library is, using LD_LIBRARY_PATH.
|
|
|
|
LD_LIBRARY_PATH="." ./demo_use
|
|
|
|
]]>
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>File demo_dynamic.c</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
<![CDATA[
|
|
/* demo_dynamic.c -- demonstrate dynamic loading and
|
|
use of the "hello" routine */
|
|
|
|
|
|
/* Need dlfcn.h for the routines to
|
|
dynamically load libraries */
|
|
#include <dlfcn.h>
|
|
|
|
#include <stdio.h>
|
|
|
|
/* Note that we don't have to include "libhello.h".
|
|
However, we do need to specify something related;
|
|
we need to specify a type that will hold the value
|
|
we're going to get from dlsym(). */
|
|
|
|
/* The type "simple_demo_function" describes a function that
|
|
takes no arguments, and returns no value: */
|
|
|
|
typedef void (*simple_demo_function)(void);
|
|
|
|
|
|
int main(void) {
|
|
const char *error;
|
|
void *module;
|
|
simple_demo_function demo_function;
|
|
|
|
/* Load dynamically loaded library */
|
|
module = dlopen("libhello.so", RTLD_LAZY);
|
|
if (!module) {
|
|
fprintf(stderr, "Couldn't open libhello.so: %s\n",
|
|
dlerror());
|
|
exit(1);
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
/* Get symbol */
|
|
dlerror();
|
|
demo_function = dlsym(module, "hello");
|
|
if ((error = dlerror())) {
|
|
fprintf(stderr, "Couldn't find hello: %s\n", error);
|
|
exit(1);
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
/* Now call the function in the DL library */
|
|
(*demo_function)();
|
|
|
|
/* All done, close things cleanly */
|
|
dlclose(module);
|
|
return 0;
|
|
}
|
|
]]>
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>File script_dynamic</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
<![CDATA[
|
|
#!/bin/sh
|
|
# Dynamically loaded library demo
|
|
|
|
# Presume that libhello.so and friends have
|
|
# been created (see dynamic example).
|
|
|
|
# Compile demo_dynamic program file into an object file.
|
|
|
|
gcc -Wall -g -c demo_dynamic.c
|
|
|
|
# Create program demo_use.
|
|
# Note that we don't have to tell it where to search for DL libraries,
|
|
# since the only special library this program uses won't be
|
|
# loaded until after the program starts up.
|
|
# However, we DO need the option -ldl to include the library
|
|
# that loads the DL libraries.
|
|
|
|
gcc -g -o demo_dynamic demo_dynamic.o -ldl
|
|
|
|
# Execute the program. Note that we need to tell the
|
|
# program where get the dynamically loaded library,
|
|
# using LD_LIBRARY_PATH.
|
|
|
|
LD_LIBRARY_PATH="." ./demo_dynamic
|
|
]]>
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
<!-- END OF demo.sgml -->
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
|
|
<sect1 id="info-sources">
|
|
<title>Other Information Sources</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
Particularly useful sources of information about libraries
|
|
include the following:
|
|
<itemizedlist>
|
|
<listitem><para>``The GCC HOWTO'' by Daniel Barlow.
|
|
In particular, this HOWTO discusses
|
|
compiler options for creating libraries and how to query
|
|
libraries.
|
|
It covers information not covered here, and vice versa.
|
|
This HOWTO is available through the Linux Documentation Project at
|
|
<ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org">http://www.linuxdoc.org</ulink>.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>``Executable and Linkable Format (ELF)'' by
|
|
the Tool Interface Standards (TIS) committee
|
|
(this is actually one chapter of the Portable Formats Specification
|
|
Version 1.1 by the same committee).
|
|
This provides information about the ELF format
|
|
(it isn't specific to Linux or GNU gcc), and provides a great deal of
|
|
detail on the ELF format.
|
|
See
|
|
<ulink url="ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/packages/GCC/ELF.doc.tar.gz">ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/packages/GCC/ELF.doc.tar.gz</ulink>
|
|
If you get the file from MIT, note that the format is unusual;
|
|
after gunzipping and untarring, you'll get an ``hps'' file; just
|
|
strip off the top and bottom lines, rename it to a ``ps'' file,
|
|
and you'll get a printable Postscript file with the usual filename.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>
|
|
``ELF: From the Programmer's Perspective'' by
|
|
Hongjui Lu. This gives Linux and GNU gcc-specific information on ELF, and is
|
|
available at
|
|
<ulink url="ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/packages/GCC/elf.ps.gz">ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/packages/GCC/elf.ps.gz</ulink>.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
</itemizedlist>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
|
|
<sect1 id="copyright">
|
|
<title>Copyright and License</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
This document is Copyright (C) 2000 David A. Wheeler.
|
|
It is covered by the GNU General Public License (GPL).
|
|
You may redistribute it without cost.
|
|
Interpret the document's source text
|
|
as the ``program'' and adhere to the following terms:
|
|
<blockquote>
|
|
<para>
|
|
This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
|
|
it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
|
|
the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or
|
|
(at your option) any later version.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
|
|
but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
|
|
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
|
|
GNU General Public License for more details.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
|
|
along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
|
|
Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA
|
|
</para>
|
|
</blockquote>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
These terms do permit mirroring by other web sites,
|
|
but please:
|
|
<itemizedlist>
|
|
<listitem><para>make sure your mirrors automatically get
|
|
upgrades from the master site,</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>clearly show the location of the master site,
|
|
<ulink url="http://www.dwheeler.com/program-library">http://www.dwheeler.com/program-library</ulink>,
|
|
with a hypertext link
|
|
to the master site, and</para></listitem>
|
|
<listitem><para>give me (David A. Wheeler) credit as the author.
|
|
</para></listitem>
|
|
</itemizedlist>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The first two points primarily protect me from repeatedly hearing about
|
|
obsolete bugs.
|
|
I do not want to hear about bugs I fixed a year ago, just because you
|
|
are not properly mirroring the document.
|
|
By linking to the master site,
|
|
users can check and see if your mirror is up-to-date.
|
|
I'm sensitive to the problems of sites which have very
|
|
strong security requirements and therefore cannot risk normal
|
|
connections to the Internet; if that describes your situation,
|
|
at least try to meet the other points
|
|
and try to occasionally sneakernet updates into your environment.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
By this license, you may modify the document,
|
|
but you can't claim that what you didn't write is yours (i.e., plagiarism)
|
|
nor can you pretend that a modified version is identical to
|
|
the original work.
|
|
Modifying the work does not transfer copyright of the entire work to you;
|
|
this is not a ``public domain'' work in terms of copyright law.
|
|
See the license for details, in particular noting that
|
|
``You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices
|
|
stating that you changed the files and the date of any change.''
|
|
If you have questions about what the license allows, please contact me.
|
|
In most cases, it's better if you send your changes to the master
|
|
integrator (currently David A. Wheeler), so that your changes will be
|
|
integrated with everyone else's changes into the master copy.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
|
|
</article>
|
|
|