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<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//OASIS//DTD DocBook V3.1//EN" [
]>
<article>
<title>Linux Frequently Asked Questions with Answers</title>
<artheader>
<author>
<firstname>David</firstname>
<surname>Merrill</surname>
<affiliation><address><email>
david@lupercalia.net
</email></address></affiliation>
</author>
<author>
<firstname>Robert</firstname>
<surname>Kiesling</surname>
<!-- former maintainer, do not display to avoid him getting hit with mail
<affiliation><address><email>
rkiesling@mainmatter.com
</email></address></affiliation>
-->
</author>
<revhistory>
<revision>
<revnumber>1.20</revnumber>
<date>2001-12-04</date>
<authorinitials>rk</authorinitials>
</revision>
</revhistory>
<abstract>
<para>
This is the list of Frequently Asked Questions for Linux, the free
operating system kernel that runs on many modern computer systems.
The kernel source code documentation says that Linux ``aims for POSIX
compliance.'' Linux uses mostly free, GNU system utilities and
application software, although commercial programs are available also.
Originally written for 386/486/586 Intel/ISA bus machines, Linux
versions exist for nearly every hardware platform in existence that is
capable of running it. (Please refer to the question, ``<xref
linkend="what-is-linux" endterm="what-is-linux">'' below.) This FAQ
is meant to be read in conjunction with the Linux Documentation
Project's HOWTO series. (``<xref linkend="get-linux-material-by-ftp"
endterm="get-linux-material-by-ftp">'' and, ``<xref
linkend="howtos-and-other-documentation"
endterm="howtos-and-other-documentation">'') The
<citetitle>INFO-SHEET</citetitle> and <citetitle>META-FAQ</citetitle>
also list sources of Linux information. Please read them, and,
``<xref linkend="still-havent-answered"
endterm="still-havent-answered">'' before posting to a Usenet news
group. You can also get Postscript, PDF, HTML, and SGML versions of this
document. (``<xref linkend="formats-which-faq"
endterm="formats-which-faq">'') Linux Frequently Asked Questions with
Answers is distributed under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. Refer to
``<xref linkend="disclaimer" endterm="disclaimer">.''
</para>
</abstract>
</artheader>
<sect1 label="1">
<title>Introduction and General Information</title>
<sect2 label="1.1">
<title id="what-is-linux">What Is Linux?</title>
<para>
Linux is the kernel of operating systems that look like and perform as
well or better than the famous operating system from AT&amp;T Bell
Labs. Linus Torvalds and a loosely knit team of volunteer hackers
from across the Internet wrote (and still are writing) Linux from
scratch. It has all of the features of a modern, fully fledged
operating system: true multitasking, threads, virtual memory, shared
libraries, demand loading, shared, copy-on-write executables, proper
memory management, loadable device driver modules, video frame
buffering, and TCP/IP networking.
</para>
<para>
Most people, however, refer to the operating system kernel, system
software, and application software, collectively, as ``Linux,'' and
that convention is used in this FAQ as well.
</para>
<para>
Linux was written originally for 386/486/586-based PC's, using the
hardware facilities of the 80386 processor family to implement its
features. There are now many ports to other hardware platforms.
(``<xref linkend="what-ports-to-other-processors-are-there"
endterm="what-ports-to-other-processors-are-there">'')
</para>
<para>
There are also Linux distributions specifically for mobile and
handheld platforms. An API specification and developers kit for the
Crusoe Smart Microprocessor developed by Transmeta Corporation are at
<ulink url="http://www.transmeta.com/">
<literal>http://www.transmeta.com/</literal></ulink>.
Information on the Linux distribution for the Compaq iPAQ is at
<ulink url="http://www.handhelds.org">
<literal>http://www.handhelds.org/</literal></ulink>
</para>
<para>
Refer also to the Linux <citetitle>INFO-SHEET</citetitle> for more
details as well as the answers to ``<xref
linkend="howtos-and-other-documentation"
endterm="howtos-and-other-documentation">'',
``<xref linkend="does-linux-run-on-my-computer"
endterm="does-linux-run-on-my-computer">'', and
``<xref linkend="what-ports-to-other-processors-are-there"
endterm="what-ports-to-other-processors-are-there">'',
below.
A list updated weekly is at:
<ulink url="http://lwn.net/">
<literal>http://lwn.net/</literal></ulink>
Archive of many of the distributions are on line at:
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.tux.org/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.tux.org/</literal></ulink> and
<ulink url="http://planetmirror.com/pub/linux">
<literal>http://planetmirror.com/pub/linux</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The Linux kernel is distributed under the GNU General Public License.
(``<xref linkend="is-linux-public-domain-copyrighted"
endterm="is-linux-public-domain-copyrighted">'')
</para>
<para>
There is a historical archive of all versions of the Linux kernel at
<ulink url="http://ps.cus.umist.ac.uk/~rhw/kernel.versions.html">
<literal>http://ps.cus.umist.ac.uk/~rhw/kernel.versions.html
</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="1.2">
<title id="where-do-i-start">How to Get Started.</title>
<para>
There are a handful of major Linux distributions. For information
about them, and how they are installed, see Matthew Welsh's
<citetitle>Installation and Getting Started</citetitle>, or
<citetitle>IGS</citetitle> for short. It's located at
the Linux Documentation Project Home Page,
<ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org/"><literal>http://www.linuxdoc.org/
</literal></ulink>, and on the Linux FAQ home page,
<ulink url="http://www.mainmatter.com/"><literal>http://www.mainmatter.com/
</literal></ulink>
</para>
<para>
The information in <citetitle>IGS</citetitle> is somewhat dated now.
More up-to-date information about first-time Linux installation is
located in the LDP's <citetitle>Installation HOWTO</citetitle>, also
located at the LDP Home Page.
</para>
<para>
Postings on the Usenet News groups, including the FAQ, are archived on
<ulink url="http://groups.google.com/">
<literal>http://groups.google.com/</literal></ulink>. Search for
``<literal>comp.os.linux.*</literal>,''
``<literal>alt.uu.comp.os.linux.*</literal>, or whatever is
appropriate, to retrieve articles from the Linux News groups.
(``<xref linkend="what-newsgroups" endterm="what-newsgroups">'')
</para>
<para>
Commercial distributions are available from book and electronics
stores. Some hardware vendors now ship systems with Linux pre-installed.
</para>
<para>
There is a very thorough installation guide on line at
<ulink url="http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/linux.html"><literal>
http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/linux.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Some distributions can still be installed via anonymous FTP from
various Linux archive sites, but in many cases, the size of the
distribution makes this impractical. (``<xref
linkend="get-linux-material-by-ftp"
endterm="get-linux-material-by-ftp">'') There are also a large number
of releases which are distributed less globally that suit
special local and national needs. Many of them are archived at
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.tux.org/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.tux.org/</literal></ulink>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="1.3">
<title id="what-software-does-linux-support">
What Software does Linux Support?</title>
<para>
All of the standard open source utilities, like GCC, (X)Emacs, the
X Window System, all the standard Unix utilities, TCP/IP (including
SLIP and PPP), and all of the hundreds of programs that people have
compiled or ported to it.
</para>
<para>
There is a DOS emulator, called DOSEMU. The latest stable release is
0.98.3. The FTP archives are at
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.dosemu.org/dosemu">
<literal>ftp://ftp.dosemu.org/dosemu</literal></ulink>
The Web site is
<ulink url="http://www.dosemu.org"><literal>http://www.dosemu.org
</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The emulator can run DOS itself and some (but not all) DOS
applications. Be sure to look at the <filename>README</filename>
file to determine which version you should get. Also, see the
<citetitle>DOSEMU-HOWTO</citetitle> (slightly dated at
this point&mdash;it doesn't cover the most recent version of the program),
at
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Work has been progressing on an emulator for Microsoft Windows
binaries. (``<xref linkend="microsoft-windows-programs-underlinux"
endterm="microsoft-windows-programs-underlinux">'')
</para>
<para>
iBCS2 (Intel Binary Compatibility Standard) emulator code for SVR4 ELF
and SVR3.2 COFF binaries can be included in the kernel as a
compile-time option. There is information at
<ulink url="ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/BETA/ibcs2/README"><literal>
ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/BETA/ibcs2/README</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
For more information see the <citetitle>INFO-SHEET</citetitle>, which
is one of the HOWTO's (``<xref
linkend="howtos-and-other-documentation"
endterm="howtos-and-other-documentation">'' and ``<xref
linkend="port-xxx-to-linux" endterm="port-xxx-to-linux">'')
</para>
<para>
Some companies have commercial software available. They often
announce their availability on
<citetitle>comp.os.linux.announce</citetitle>&mdash; try searching the
archives. (``<xref linkend="are-the-newsgroups-archived-anywhere"
endterm="are-the-newsgroups-archived-anywhere">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="1.4">
<title id="ported-compiled-written-xxx">
How to Find a Particular Application.</title>
<para>
Look first in the Linux Software Map. It's at:
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/linux-software-map/">
<literal>ftp://ibiblio.org/pub/Linux/docs/linux-software-map/</literal>
</ulink>, and on the other FTP sites. A search engine is available on
the World Wide Web at
<ulink url="http://www.boutell.com/lsm/">
<literal>http://www.boutell.com/lsm/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Also check out the <emphasis>Freshmeat</emphasis> Web site:
<ulink url="http://www.freshmeat.net/">
<literal>http://www.freshmeat.net</literal></ulink>, which is where
many new announcements of free software first appear. Freshmeat is
basically a site index that continuously updates the notices of new or
upgraded software for Linux, and maintains indexes of the announcements
and links to their URL's.
</para>
<para>
The FTP sites (``<xref linkend="get-linux-material-by-ftp"
endterm="get-linux-material-by-ftp">'') often have
<filename>ls-lR</filename> or <filename>INDEX</filename> directory
listings which you can search using <command>grep</command> or a text
editor. The directory listings files can be very large, however, making
them unwieldy for quick searches.
</para>
<para>
Also look at the Linux Projects Map:
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.ix.de/pub/ix/Linux/docs/Projects-Map.gz">
<literal>ftp://ftp.ix.de/pub/ix/Linux/docs/Projects-Map.gz</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
There's a search engine for Linux FTP archives at:
<ulink url="http://lfw.linuxhq.com/">
<literal>http://lfw.linuxhq.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Searching for ``Linux'' on the World Wide Web provides
copious references.
(``<xref linkend="world-wide-web-for-linux-stuff"
endterm="world-wide-web-for-linux-stuff">'')
</para>
<para>
If you don't find anything, you could download the sources to the
program yourself and compile them. See
(See: ``<xref linkend="port-xxx-to-linux"
endterm="port-xxx-to-linux">'')
If it's a large package that may require some porting, post
a message to <citetitle>comp.os.linux.development.apps</citetitle>.
</para>
<para>
If you compile a large-ish program, please upload it to one or more of
the FTP sites, and post a message to
<citetitle>comp.os.linux.announce</citetitle> (submit
your posting to
<ulink url="mailto:linux-announce@news.ornl.gov">
<literal>linux-announce@news.ornl.gov</literal></ulink>).
</para>
<para>
If you're looking for an application program, the chances are that
someone has already written a free version. The
<citetitle>comp.sources.wanted</citetitle>
FAQ has instructions for finding the source code.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="1.5">
<title id="does-linux-run-on-my-computer">
What Hardware Is Supported?</title>
<para>
A minimal Linux installation requires a machine for which a port
exists, at least 2Mb of RAM, and a single floppy drive. But to do anything
even remotely useful, more RAM and disk space are needed. Refer to:
``<xref linkend="what-ports-to-other-processors-are-there"
endterm="what-ports-to-other-processors-are-there">'', ``<xref
linkend= "how-much-hard-disk-space-does-linux-need"
endterm="how-much-hard-disk-space-does-linux-need">'', and ``<xref
linkend="how-much-memory-does-linux-need"
endterm="how-much-memory-does-linux-need">''
</para>
<para>
Intel CPU, PC-compatible machines require at least an 80386 processor
to run the standard Linux kernel.
</para>
<para>
Linux, including the X Window System GUI, runs on most current
laptops. Refer to the answer for: ``<xref
linkend="my-notebook-runs-linux" endterm="my-notebook-runs-linux">''
There are numerous sources of information about specific PC's, video
cards, disk controllers, and other hardware. Refer to the
<citetitle>INFO-SHEET</citetitle>, <citetitle>Laptop
HOWTO</citetitle>, and the <citetitle>Hardware HOWTO</citetitle>.
(``<xref
linkend="howtos-and-other-documentation"
endterm="howtos-and-other-documentation">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="1.6">
<title id="what-ports-to-other-processors-are-there">
Ports to Other Processors.</title>
<para>
The Web site, Overview of Linux Ports: <ulink
url="http://www.itp.uni-hannover.de/~kreutzm/de/lin_plattforms.html">
<literal>http://www.itp.uni-hannover.de/~kreutzm/de/lin_plattforms.html
</literal></ulink> provides a listing of known ports.
</para>
<para>
Another site with a list of ports is:
<ulink url="http://lodda.igo.uni-hannover.de/ports/linux_ports.html">
<literal>http://lodda.igo.uni-hannover.de/ports/linux_ports.html</literal>
</ulink>
</para>
<para>
In addition,
the following information is available about specific ports:
</para>
<para>
On Intel platforms, VESA Local Bus and PCI bus are supported.
</para>
<para>
MCA (IBM's proprietary bus) and ESDI hard drives are mostly supported.
There is further information on the MCA bus and what cards Linux
supports on the Micro Channel Linux Web page,
<ulink url="http://www.dgmicro.com/mca">
<literal>http://www.dgmicro.com/mca</literal></ulink>. Refer also to
the answer for: ``<xref linkend="world-wide-web-for-linux-stuff"
endterm="world-wide-web-for-linux-stuff">''
</para>
<para>
There is a port of Linux to the 8086, known as the Embeddable Linux
Kernel Subset (ELKS). This is a 16-bit subset of the Linux kernel
which will mainly be used for embedded systems, at:
<ulink url="http://www.linux.org.uk/Linux8086.html">
<literal>http://www.linux.org.uk/Linux8086.html</literal></ulink>.
Standard Linux does not run 8086 or 80286 processors, because it
requires task-switching and memory management facilities found on
80386 and later processors.
</para>
<para>
Linux supports multiprocessing with Intel MP architecture. See the
file <filename>Documentation/smp.tex</filename> in the Linux kernel
source code distribution.
</para>
<para>
A project has been underway for a while to port Linux to suitable
68000-series based systems like Amigas and Ataris. The Linux/m68K FAQ
is located at
<ulink url="http://www.clark.net/pub/lawrencc/linux/faq/faq.html">
<literal>http://www.clark.net/pub/lawrencc/linux/faq/faq.html</literal>
</ulink>. The URL of the Linux/m68k home page is
<ulink url="http://www.linux-m68k.org/faq/faq.html">
<literal>http://www.linux-m68k.org/faq/faq.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
There is a m68k port for the Amiga by Jes Sorensen, which is located
at
<ulink url="ftp://sunsite.auc.dk/pub/os/linux/680x0/redhat/">
<literal>ftp://sunsite.auc.dk/pub/os/linux/680x0/redhat/</literal></ulink>.
The installation FAQ for the package, by Ron Flory, is at
<ulink url="http://www.feist.com/~rjflory/linux/rh/">
<literal>http://www.feist.com/~rjflory/linux/rh/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
There is also a linux-680x0 mailing list.
(``<xref
linkend="what-mailing-lists-are-there"
endterm="what-mailing-lists-are-there">'')
</para>
<para>
There is (or was) a FTP site for the Linux-m68k project on
<ulink url="ftp.phil.uni-sb.de/pub/atari/linux-68k">
<literal>ftp.phil.uni-sb.de/pub/atari/linux-68k</literal></ulink>,
but this address may no longer be current.
</para>
<para>
Debian GNU/Linux is being ported to Alpha, Sparc, PowerPC, and ARM
platforms. There are mailing lists for all of them. See
<ulink url="http://www.debian.org/MailingLists/subscribe">
<literal>http://www.debian.org/MailingLists/subscribe</literal></ulink>
</para>
<para>
One of the Linux-PPC project pages has moved recently. Its location is
<ulink url="http://www.debian.org/MailingLists/subscribe">
<literal>http://www.debian.org/MailingLists/subscribe</literal></ulink>.
<ulink url="http://www.linuxppc.org">
<literal>http://www.linuxppc.org</literal></ulink>,
and the archive site is
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.linuxppc.org/linuxppc">
<literal>ftp://ftp.linuxppc.org/linuxppc</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
There is a Linux-PPC support page at
<ulink url="http://www.cs.nmt.edu/~linuxppc/">
<literal>http://www.cs.nmt.edu/~linuxppc/</literal></ulink>.
There you will find the kernel that is distributed with Linux.
</para>
<para>
There are two sites for the Linux iMac port:
<ulink url="http://w3.one.net/~johnb/imaclinux">
<literal>http://w3.one.net/~johnb/imaclinux</literal></ulink>, and
<ulink url="http://www.imaclinux.net:8080/content/index.html">
<literal>http://www.imaclinux.net:8080/content/index.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
A port to the 64-bit DEC Alpha/AXP is at
<ulink url="http://www.azstarnet.com/~axplinux/">
<literal>http://www.azstarnet.com/~axplinux/</literal></ulink>.
There is a mailing list at <literal>vger.redhat.com</literal>:
(``<xref
linkend="what-mailing-lists-are-there"
endterm="what-mailing-lists-are-there">'')
</para>
<para>
Ralf Baechle is working on a port to the MIPS, initially for the R4600
on Deskstation Tyne machines. The
<citetitle>Linux-MIPS</citetitle> FTP sites are
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.fnet.fr/linux-mips">
<literal>ftp://ftp.fnet.fr/linux-mips</literal></ulink>
and
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.linux.sgi.com/pub/mips-linux">
<literal>ftp://ftp.linux.sgi.com/pub/mips-linux</literal></ulink>.
Interested people may mail their questions and offers of assistance to
<ulink url="mailto:linux@waldorf-gmbh.de"><literal>
linux@waldorf-gmbh.de</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
There is (or was) also a MIPS channel on the Linux Activists mail
server and a linux-mips mailing list.
(``<xref
linkend="what-mailing-lists-are-there"
endterm="what-mailing-lists-are-there">'')
</para>
<para>
There are currently two ports of Linux to the ARM family of
processors. One of these is for the ARM3, fitted to the Acorn A5000,
and it includes I/O drivers for the 82710/11 as appropriate. The other
is to the ARM610 of the Acorn RISC PC. The RISC PC port is currently
in its early to middle stages, owing to the need to rewrite much of
the memory handling. The A5000 port is in restricted beta testing. A
release is likely soon.
</para>
<para>
For more, up-to-date information, read the newsgroup
<citetitle>comp.sys.acorn.misc</citetitle>. There is a FAQ at
<ulink url="http://www.arm.uk.linux.org">
<literal>http://www.arm.uk.linux.org</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The Linux SPARC project is a hotbed of activity. There is a FAQ and
plenty of other information available from the UltraLinux page,
<ulink
url="http://www.ultralinux.org/">
<literal>http://www.ultralinux.org/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The Home Page of the UltraSPARC port ("UltraPenguin") is located at
<ulink url="http://sunsite.mff.cuni.cz/linux/ultrapenguin-1.0/">
<literal>http://sunsite.mff.cuni.cz/linux/ultrapenguin-1.0/</literal></ulink>,
although the URL may not be current.
</para>
<para>
There is also a port to SGI/Indy machines ("Hardhat"). The URL is
<ulink url="http://www.linux.sgi.com/">
<literal>http://www.linux.sgi.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="1.7">
<title id="how-much-hard-disk-space-does-linux-need">
Disk Space Requirements: Minimal, Server, and Workstation.</title>
<para>
About 10Mb for a very minimal installation, suitable for trying Linux,
and not much else.
</para>
<para>
You can fit a typical server installation, including the X Window
Systemt GUI, into 80Mb. Installing Debian GNU/Linux takes
500Mb&ndash;1GB, including kernel source code, some space for user
files, and spool areas.
</para>
<para>
Installing a commercial distribution that has a desktop GUI
environment, commercial word processor, and front-office productivity
suite, will claim 1&ndash;1.5 GB of disk space, approximately.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="1.8">
<title id="how-much-memory-does-linux-need">
Minimum and Maximum Memory Requirements.</title>
<para>
At least 4MB, and then you will need to use special installation
procedures until the disk swap space is installed. Linux will run
comfortably in 4MB of RAM, although running GUI apps is impractically
slow because they need to swap out to disk.
</para>
<para>
Some applications, like StarOffice, require 32 MB of physical memory,
and compiling C++ code can easily consume over 100 MB of combined
physical and virtual memory.
</para>
<para>
There is a distribution, ``Small Linux,'' that will run on machines
with 2MB of RAM. Refer to the answer to:
``<xref linkend="get-linux-material-by-ftp"
endterm="get-linux-material-by-ftp">''
</para>
<para>
A number of people have asked how to address more than 64 MB of
memory, which is the default upper limit in most standard
kernels. Either type, at the <literal>BOOT lilo:</literal> prompt:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
mem=XXM
</screen>
</para>
<para>
Or place the following in your <filename>/etc/lilo.conf</filename>
file:
</para>
<para>
<programlisting>
append="mem=XXM"
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
The parameter ``<emphasis>XX</emphasis>M'' is the amount of memory,
specified as megabytes; for example, ``128M.''
</para>
<para>
If an ``<literal>append=</literal>'' directive with other
configuration options already exists in
<filename>/etc/lilo.conf</filename>, then add the
<literal>mem=</literal> directive to the end of the existing
argument, and separated from the previous arguments by a space; e.g.:
</para>
<para>
<programlisting>
# Example only; do not use.
append="parport=0x3bc,none serial=0x3f8,4 mem=XXM"
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
Be sure to run the ``<command>lilo</command>'' command to install the
new configuration.
</para>
<para>
If Linux still doesn't recognize the extra memory, the kernel may
need additional configuration. Refer to the
<filename>/usr/src/linux/Documentation/memory.txt</filename> file in
the kernel source as a start.
</para>
<para>
For further information about LILO, refer to the
manual pages for <command>lilo</command> and <filename>lilo.conf</filename>,
the documentation in <filename>/usr/doc/lilo</filename>, and the answer
for:
``<xref linkend="boot-time-parameters"
endterm="boot-time-parameters">'', below.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="1.9">
<title id="does-linux-support-the-usb-bus">
Does Linux Support Universal System Bus Devices?</title>
<para>
Linux supports a few dozen USB devices at present, and work is
underway to develop additional device drivers.
There is a Web page devoted to the subject, at
<ulink url="http://www.linux-usb.org/">
<literal>http://www.linux-usb.org/</literal></ulink>. There is also
LDP documentation, at: (``<xref
linkend="world-wide-web-for-linux-stuff"
endterm="world-wide-web-for-linux-stuff">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="1.10">
<title id="is-linux-public-domain-copyrighted">
What Is Linux's Open-Source License?</title>
<para>
The Linux trademark belongs to Linus Torvalds. He has placed the Linux
kernel under the GNU General Public License, which basically means
that you may freely copy, change, and distribute it, but you may not
impose any restrictions on further distribution, and you must make the
source code available.
</para>
<para>
There is a FAQ for the GPL at:
<ulink url="http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gnu-faq.html">
<literal>http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gnu-faq.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
This is not the same as Public Domain. See the Copyright FAQ,
<ulink url="ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/news.answers/law/copyright">
<literal>
ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/news.answers/law/copyright</literal>
</ulink>, for details.
</para>
<para>
Full details are in the file <filename>COPYING</filename>
in the Linux kernel sources
(probably in <filename>/usr/src/linux</filename> on your system).
</para>
<para>
The licenses of the utilities and programs which come with the
installations vary. Much of the code is from the GNU Project at the
Free Software Foundation, and is also under the GPL.
</para>
<para>
Note that discussion about the merits or otherwise of the GPL should
be posted to the news group gnu.misc.discuss, and not to the
<citetitle>comp.os.linux</citetitle> hierarchy.
</para>
<para>
For legal questions, refer to the answer:
(``<xref linkend="where-are-linux-legal-issues-discussed"
endterm="where-are-linux-legal-issues-discussed">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="1.11">
<title id="is-linux-nix">Is Linux *nix?</title>
<para>
Not officially, until it passes the Open Group's certification tests,
and supports the necessary API's. Even very few of the commercial
operating systems have passed the Open Group tests. For more
information, see
<ulink url="http://www.unix-systems.org/what_is_unix.html">
<literal>http://www.unix-systems.org/what_is_unix.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>&lsqb;Bob Friesenhahn&rsqb;</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 label="2">
<title>Network Sources and Resources</title>
<sect2 label="2.1">
<title id="where-can-i-get-the-latest-kernel-version">
Where Is the Latest Kernel Version on the Internet?</title>
<para>
Make that versions. The 2.0 series kernels are still available for
older machines. The latest production kernel series is 2.2.x. The
updates to this kernel are bug fixes. The new 2.4 kernel sources are
also on-line.
</para>
<para>
The Web page at
<ulink url="http://www.kernel.org/">
<literal>http://www.kernel.org/</literal></ulink> lists the current
versions of the development and production kernels.
</para>
<para>
If you want to download the source code, FTP to
<literal>ftp.xx.kernel.org</literal>, where ``<literal>xx</literal>''
is the two-letter Internet domain abbreviation of your country; e.g.,
``<literal>us</literal>'' for United States, ``<literal>ca</literal>''
for Canada, or ``<literal>de</literal>'' for Germany. Kernel versions
2.2.x are archived in the directory
<filename>pub/linux/kernel/v2.2</filename>, as are patches for the
prerelease versions. The kernel source code is archived as a
<literal>.tar.gz</literal> file, and as a <literal>.tar.bz2</literal>
file.
</para>
<para>
Follow the instructions in any of the standard references to compile
the kernel, as you would with any other custom kernel. The
<filename>Documentation</filename> subdirectory contains information
by the authors of various subsystems and drivers, and much of that
information is not documented elsewhere.
</para>
<para>
If you want to participate in kernel development, make sure that you
sign on to the linux-kernel mailing list to find out what people are
working on. Refer to the answer: ``<xref
linkend="what-mailing-lists-are-there"
endterm="what-mailing-lists-are-there">''
</para>
<para>
There is a story about the features of the 2.4 series kernels at
<ulink url="http://features.linuxtoday.com/stories/8191.html">
<literal>http://features.linuxtoday.com/stories/8191.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="2.2">
<title id="howtos-and-other-documentation">
Where Is the Documentation?</title>
<para>
Look in the following places, and the sites that mirror them.
</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
<ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org/">
<literal>http://www.linuxdoc.org/</literal></ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.funet.fi/pub/OS/Linux/doc/HOWTO/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.funet.fi/pub/OS/Linux/doc/HOWTO/</literal></ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<ulink url="ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/docs/HOWTO/">
<literal>ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/docs/HOWTO/</literal></ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/</literal></ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
For a list of Linux FTP sites, refer to the answer for:
``<xref linkend="get-linux-material-by-ftp"
endterm="get-linux-material-by-ftp">''
</para>
<para>
If you don't have access to FTP, try the FTP-by-mail servers:
<ulink url="mailto:ftpmail@decwrl.dec.com">
<literal>ftpmail@decwrl.dec.com</literal></ulink>,
<ulink url="mailto:ftpmail@doc.ic.ac.uk">
<literal>ftpmail@doc.ic.ac.uk</literal></ulink>, or:
<ulink url="mailto:ftp-mailer@informatik.tu-muenchen.de">
<literal>ftp-mailer@informatik.tu-muenchen.de</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
A complete list of HOWTO's is available in the file
<citetitle>HOWTO-INDEX</citetitle> at
<ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org/HOWTO/HOWTO-INDEX/howtos.html">
<literal>http://www.linuxdoc.org/HOWTO/HOWTO-INDEX/howtos.html.</literal>
</ulink>
The mini-HOWTO's are indexed at
<ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org/HOWTO/HOWTO-INDEX/mini.html">
<literal>http://www.linuxdoc.org/HOWTO/HOWTO-INDEX/mini.html.</literal>
</ulink>
</para>
<para>
A search engine at the Linux FAQ Home Page,
<ulink url="http://www.mainmatter.com/">
<literal>http://www.mainmatter.com/</literal></ulink>,
allows you to search LDP HOWTO's, the Linux FAQ, man pages, and
<citetitle>Network Administrator's Guide</citetitle>.
</para>
<para>
In addition, translations are available from
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/translations/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/translations/
</literal></ulink>
and mirrors worldwide. The HOWTO's and other documentation have been
translated into the following languages:
</para>
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<entry>Chinese (zh)</entry>
<entry>Croatian (hr)</entry>
<entry>French (fr)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>German (de)</entry>
<entry>Hellenic (el)</entry>
<entry>Indonesian (id)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Italian (it)</entry>
<entry>Japanese (ja)</entry>
<entry>Korean (ko)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Polish (pl)</entry>
<entry>Slovenian (sl)</entry>
<entry>Spanish (es)</entry>
</row>
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<entry>Swedish (sv)</entry>
<entry>Turkish (tr)</entry>
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<para>
<screen>
Chinese (Big5) (zh) Croatian (hr) French (fr)
German (de Hellenic (el) Indonesian (id)
Italian (it) Japanese (ja) Korean (ko)
Polish (pl) Slovenian (sl) Spanish (es)
Swedish (sv) Turkish (tr)
</screen>
</para>
<para>
Additional documents are always in preparation. Please get in touch
with the coordinators if you are interested in writing one.
Contact and submission information is at
<ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org/mailinfo.html">
<literal>http://www.linuxdoc.org/mailinfo.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
There is also a LDP HOWTO page at
<ulink url="http://howto.tucows.org/">
<literal>http://howto.tucows.org/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The Guide Series produced by the Linux Documentation Project is
available from
<ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org/">
<literal>http://www.linuxdoc.org/</literal></ulink>. Please read them if you
are new to Unix and Linux.
</para>
<para>
The <citetitle>Linux Mobile Guide</citetitle> is an expanded version
of the <citetitle>Linux-Laptop-HOWTO</citetitle>. The URL is:
<ulink url="http://home.snafu.de/wehe/howtos.html">
<literal>http://home.snafu.de/wehe/howtos.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
And, of course, a number of people have written documentation
independently of the LDP:
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>Linux Administrators Security Guide,</citetitle>
by Kurt Seifried.
<ulink url="http://www.freek.com/lasg/">
<literal>http://www.freek.com/lasg/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>Newbie's Linux Manual.</citetitle>
<ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org/nlm/">
<literal>http://www.linuxdoc.org/nlm/</literal>
</ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>One-Page Linux Manual.</citetitle>
<ulink url="http://www.powerup.com.au/~squadron/">
<literal>http://www.powerup.com.au/~squadron/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>Rute Users Tutorial and Exposition.</citetitle>
<ulink url="http://rute.sourceforge.net/">
<literal>http://rute.sourceforge.net/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>Short beginners' manual for Linux.</citetitle>
Also available in Dutch.
<ulink url="http://www.stuwww.kub.nl/people/b.vannunen/linux-man.php3">
<literal>http://www.stuwww.kub.nl/people/b.vannunen/linux-man.php3
</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>Virtual Frame buffer HOWTO,</citetitle>
by Alex Buell.
<ulink url="http://www.tahallah.demon.co.uk/programming/prog.html">
<literal>http://www.tahallah.demon.co.uk/programming/prog.html
</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>X11 & TrueType Fonts,</citetitle> by Peter Kleiweg.
<ulink url="http://www.let.rug.nl/~kleiweg/">
<literal>http://www.let.rug.nl/~kleiweg/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>
Documentation for kernel developers is on-line:
<ulink url="http://kernelbook.sourceforge.net">
<literal>http://kernelbook.sourceforge.net/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
To find out about Linux memory management, including performance
tuning, see Rik van Riel's Web page at
<ulink url="http://humbolt.geo.uu.nl/Linux-MM/">
<literal>http://humbolt.geo.uu.nl/Linux-MM/</literal></ulink>.</para>
<para>
The Linux Consultants HOWTO has a directory of Linux consultants at
<ulink url="http://www.linuxports.com/">
<literal>http://www.linuxports.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Gary's Encyclopedia lists over 4,000 Linux related links. Its URL is
<ulink url="http://members.aa.net/~swear/pedia/index.html">
<literal>http://members.aa.net/~swear/pedia/index.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
There is also a FAQ specifically for the Red Hat Linux distribution,
at
<ulink url="http://www.best.com/~aturner/RedHat-FAQ/faq_index.html">
<literal>http://www.best.com/~aturner/RedHat-FAQ/faq_index.html
</literal></ulink>.</para>
<para>
And the Home Page of this FAQ is
<ulink url="http://www.mainmatter.com/">
<literal>http://www.mainmatter.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="2.3">
<title id="world-wide-web-for-linux-stuff">
Where Is the Linux Stuff on the World Wide Web?</title>
<para>
In addition to the Linux Documentation Project Home Page:
<ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org/">
<literal>http://www.linuxdoc.org/</literal></ulink>,
there are many pages that provide
beginning and advanced information about Linux.
</para>
<para>
These two pages provide a good starting point for general Linux
information: Linux International's Home Page, at
<ulink url="http://www.li.org/">
<literal>http://www.li.org/</literal></ulink>,
and the Linux Online's Linux Home Page at
<ulink url="http://www.linux.org/">
<literal>http://www.linux.org/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Both of these pages provide links to other sites, information about
general information, distributions, new software, documentation, and
news.
</para>
<para>
Documentation for kernel developers is on-line:
<ulink url="http://kernelbook.sourceforge.net">
<literal>http://kernelbook.sourceforge.net/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The tutorial, <citetitle>Unix is a Four Letter Word...,</citetitle>
is located at
<ulink url="http://www.linuxbox.com/~taylor/4ltrwrd/">
<literal>http://www.linuxbox.com/~taylor/4ltrwrd/</literal></ulink>.
It is a general introduction to Unix operating systems and is not
Linux specific.
</para>
<para>
Additionally, here is a certainly incomplete list of Web pages devoted
to Linux:
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>AboutLinux.com:
<ulink url="http://www.aboutlinux.com/">
<literal>http://www.aboutlinux.com/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adventures in Linux Programming:
<ulink url="http://members.tripod.com/rpragana/">
<literal>http://members.tripod.com/rpragana/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dave Central Linux Software Archive:
<ulink url="http://linux.davecentral.com/">
<literal>http://linux.davecentral.com/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>debianHELP <ulink url="http://www.debianhelp.org/">
<literal>http://www.debianhelp.org/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Erlug Webzine (Italian):
<ulink url="http://www.erlug.linux.it/">
<literal>http://www.erlug.linux.it/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Free Unix Giveaway List:
<ulink url="http://visar.csustan.edu/giveaway.html">
<literal>http://visar.csustan.edu/giveaway.html</literal></ulink>.
Lists offers of free Linux CDs. Also available via
E-mail:
<ulink url="mailto:axel@visar.csustan.edu">
<literal>axel@visar.csustan.edu</literal></ulink>, with
the Subject: send giveaway_list.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Information on Linux in corporate environments:
<ulink url="http://www.smartstocks.com/linux.html">
<literal>http://www.smartstocks.com/linux.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Jeanette Russo's Linux Newbie Information:
<ulink url="http://www.stormloader.com/jrusso2/index.html">
<literal>http://www.stormloader.com/jrusso2/index.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>JustLinux.com:
<ulink url="http://www.justlinux.com/">
<literal>http://www.justlinux.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux Cartoons:
<ulink url="http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~conradp/linux/cartoons/">
<literal>http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~conradp/linux/cartoons/
</literal></ulink>.</para>
<listitem>
<para>LinuxArtist.org:
<ulink url="http://www.linuxartist.org/">
<literal>http://www.linuxartist.org/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linuxinfor.com - Online Linux Resources:
<ulink url="http://www.linuxinfor.com/"><literal>http://www.linuxinfor.com/
</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>linuXChiX.org:
<ulink url="http://www.linuxchix.org/">
<literal>http://www.linuxchix.org/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>LinuxDevices.com: The Embedded Linux Portal:
<ulink url="http://www.linuxdevices.com/">
<literal>http://www.linuxdevices.com</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux Educational Needs Posting Page:
<ulink url="http://www.slip.net/~brk/linuxedpp.htm">
<literal>http://www.slip.net/~brk/linuxedpp.htm</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux in Business: Case Studies:
<ulink url="http://www.bynari.com/collateral/case_studies.html">
<literal>http://www.bynari.com/collateral/case_studies.html</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux Hardware Database Laptop Superguide:
<ulink url="http://lhd.zdnet.com/db/superguide.php3?catid=18">
<literal>http://lhd.zdnet.com/db/superguide.php3?catid=18</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux Inside:
<ulink url="http://linuxinside.org/">
<literal>http://linuxinside.org/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux Links:
<ulink url="http://www.linuxlinks.com/">
<literal>http://www.linuxlinks.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux Memory Management Home Page:
<ulink url="http://humbolt.geo.uu.nl/Linux-MM/">
<literal>http://humbolt.geo.uu.nl/Linux-MM/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux Newbie Project:
<ulink url="http://kusma.hypermart.net/">
<literal>http://kusma.hypermart.net/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux on the Thinkpad 760ED:
<ulink url="http://www.e-oasis.com/linux-tp.html">
<literal>http://www.e-oasis.com/linux-tp.html</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>LinuxOrbit:
<ulink url="http://www.linuxorbit.com/">
<literal>http://www.linuxorbit.com/</literal></ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux Parallel Port Home Page:
<ulink url="http://www.torque.net/linux-pp.html">
<literal>http://www.torque.net/linux-pp.html</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux MIDI & Sound Applications:
<ulink url="http://sound.condorow.net/">
<literal>http://sound.condorow.net/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux Start:
<ulink url="http://www.linuxstart.com/">
<literal>http://www.linuxstart.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux Tips and Tricks Page:
<ulink url="http://www.patoche.org/LTT/">
<literal>http://www.patoche.org/LTT/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux Today PR:
<ulink url="http://www.linuxpr.com/">
<literal>http://www.linuxpr.com/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mandrakeuser.Org:
<ulink url="http://mandrakeuser.org/">
<literal>http://mandrakeuser.org/</literal></ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>My Linux Contributions by Richard Gooch:
<ulink url="http://www.atnf.csiro.au/~rgooch/linux/">
<literal>http://www.atnf.csiro.au/~rgooch/linux/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Micro Channel Linux Web Page:
<ulink url="http://www.dgmicro.com/mca/">
<literal>http://www.dgmicro.com/mca/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Parallel port scanners and SANE:
<ulink url="http://www2.prestel.co.uk/hex/scanners.html">
<literal>http://www2.prestel.co.uk/hex/scanners.html</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Pascal Central: <ulink url="http://www.pascal-central.com/">
<literal>http://www.pascal-central.com/</literal></ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>PegaSoft Portal:
<ulink url="http://www.vaxxine.com/pegasoft/portal/">
<literal>http://www.vaxxine.com/pegasoft/portal/</literal></ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>PocketLinux.
<ulink url="http://www.pocketlinux.com/">
<literal>http://www.pocketlinux.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Red Hat and ISDN4Linux:
<ulink url="http://www.webideal.de/">
<literal>http://www.webideal.de/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>SearchLinux:
<ulink url="http://www.searchlinux.com/">
<literal>http://www.searchlinux.com/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem><para>
The Free Linux CD Project: <ulink
url="http://www.freelinuxcd.org/">
<literal>http://www.freelinuxcd.org/</literal></ulink>.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>The Site for People Learning Perl: <ulink
url="http://learn.perl.org/">
<literal>http://learn.perl.org/</literal></ulink>.
</para></listitem>
<listitem>
<para>USB Linux Home Page:
<ulink url="http://peloncho.fis.ucm.es/~inaky/uusbd-www/">
<literal>http://peloncho.fis.ucm.es/~inaky/uusbd-www/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>VLUG: The Virtual Linux Users Group:
<ulink url="http://www.vlug.com/">
<literal>http://www.vlug.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>
Searching for ``<literal>Linux</literal>'' on Web Search Engines, like
Yahoo! (<ulink url="http://www.yahoo.com/">
<literal>http://www.yahoo.com/</literal></ulink>), Altavista
(<ulink url="http://www.altavista.com/">
<literal>http://www.altavista.com/</literal></ulink>),
or Google (<ulink url="http://www.google.com/">
<literal>http://www.google.com/</literal></ulink>) will provide
copious references to Linux Web sites. Further information about
about Web search engines is in the <citetitle>Web and Internet Search
Engine Faq</citetitle>: <ulink
url="http://www.infobasic.com/pagefaq.html">
<literal>http://www.infobasic.com/pagefaq.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Refer also to the answer for:
``<xref linkend="what-other-faqs" endterm="what-other-faqs">''
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="2.4">
<title id="what-newsgroups">What News Groups Are There for Linux?</title>
<para>
<citetitle>Comp.os.linux.announce</citetitle> is the moderated
announcements group. You should read this if you intend to use Linux.
It contains information about software updates, new ports, user group
meetings, and commercial products. It is the <emphasis>only</emphasis>
newsgroup that may carry commercial postings. Submissions for that
group should be e-mailed to
<ulink url="mailto:linux-announce@news.ornl.gov">
<literal>linux-announce@news.ornl.gov</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
<citetitle>Comp.os.linux.announce</citetitle>
is archived at:
<ulink url="http://www.iki.fi/mjr/linux/cola.html">
<literal>http://www.iki.fi/mjr/linux/cola.html</literal></ulink>,
and
<ulink url="ftp://src.doc.ic.ac.uk/usenet/comp.os.linux.announce/">
<literal>ftp://src.doc.ic.ac.uk/usenet/comp.os.linux.announce/</literal>
</ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Also worth reading are the following other groups in the
<citetitle>comp.os.linux.*</citetitle> and
<citetitle>alt.uu.comp.os.linux.*</citetitle> hierarchies&mdash;you may
find many common problems too
recent for the documentation but are answered in the newsgroups.
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>alt.uu.comp.os.linux</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>alt.uu.comp.os.linux.questions</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>alt.os.linux</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>alt.os.linux.mandrake</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.admin</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.advocacy</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.alpha</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.answers</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.development</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.development.apps</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.development.system</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.embedded</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.hardware</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.help</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.m68k</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.misc</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.network</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.networking</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.portable</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.powerpc</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.questions</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.redhat</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.security</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.setup</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.test</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.x</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.os.linux.x.video</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>
Remember that Linux is POSIX compatible, and most all of the material
in the <citetitle>comp.unix.*</citetitle> and
<citetitle>comp.windows.x.*</citetitle> groups will be relevant. Apart
from hardware considerations, and some obscure or very technical
low-level issues, you'll find that these groups are good places to
start.
</para>
<para>
Information about e-mail clients (MUA's), mail transfer agents
(MTA's), and other related software are in the
<literal>comp.mail.*</literal> groups, especially:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.mail.misc</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.mail.pine</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>comp.mail.sendmail</citetitle></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
Questions and information about News reading software are in:
<citetitle>news.software.readers</citetitle>.
</para>
<para>
Please read
``<xref linkend="still-havent-answered"
endterm="still-havent-answered">''
before posting. Cross posting between different
<citetitle>comp.os.linux.*</citetitle> groups is rarely a good idea.
</para>
<para>
There may well be Linux groups local to your institution or
area&mdash;check there first.
</para>
<para>
See also
``<xref linkend="i-dont-have-usenet-access"
endterm="i-dont-have-usenet-access">''
</para>
<para>
Other regional and local newsgroups also exist&mdash;you may find the
traffic more manageable there. The French Linux newsgroup is
<citetitle>fr.comp.os.linux</citetitle>. In Germany there is
<citetitle>de.comp.os.linux.*</citetitle>. In Australia,
try <citetitle>aus.computers.linux</citetitle>.
In Croatia there is <citetitle>hr.comp.linux</citetitle>. In Italy,
there is <citetitle>it.comp.linux</citetitle>.
</para>
<para>
A search of
<ulink url="http://groups.google.com/">
<literal>http://groups.google.com/</literal></ulink> can provide
an up-to-date list of News groups.
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Axel Boldt, Robert Kiesling&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="2.5">
<title id="what-other-faqs">
What Other FAQ's and Documentation Are There for Linux?
</title>
<para>
There are a number of special interest FAQ's on different subjects
related to system administration and use, and also on miscellaneous topics
like Flying Saucer Attacks (the music) and support for recovering
sysadmins.
</para>
<para>
The official Usenet FAQ archives are: <ulink
url="ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/">
<literal>ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The <citetitle>Internet FAQ Consortium</citetitle>
provides a searchable archive at: <ulink
url="http://www.faqs.org/">
<literal>http://www.faqs.org/</literal></ulink>. The
site also maintains a current archive of Internet Request For
Comment (RFC), Best Current Practices (BCP), and For
Your Information (FYI) documents.
</para>
<para>
Here are some FAQ's and documents that might be especially useful, and their
network addresses:
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A FAQ for new users:
<ulink url="http://homes.arealcity.com/swietanowski/LinuxFAQ/">
<literal>http://homes.arealcity.com/swietanowski/LinuxFAQ/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>AfterStep FAQ: <ulink
url="http://www.linuxinfor.com/en/astepfaq/AfterStep-FAQ.html">
<literal>http://www.linuxinfor.com/en/astepfaq/AfterStep-FAQ.html
</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>BASH Frequently Asked Questions:
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.cwru.edu/pug/bash/FAQ/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.cwru.edu/pug/bash/FAQ/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><literal>de.comp.os.unix.linux.infos - FAQ</literal>: <ulink
url="http://www.dcoul.de/"><literal>http://www.dcoul.de/</literal>
</ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Frequently Asked Questions about Open Source:
<ulink url="http://www.opensource.org/faq.html">
<literal>http://www.opensource.org/faq.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ftape-FAQ: <ulink
url="http://www.linuxinfor.com/en/ftapefaq/Ftape-FAQ.html">
<literal>http://www.linuxinfor.com/en/ftapefaq/Ftape-FAQ.html</literal>
</ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>GNU Emacs: <ulink
url="http://www.lerner.co.il/emacs/faq-body.shtml">
<literal>http://www.lerner.co.il/emacs/faq-body.shtml</literal>
</ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>GNU Linux in Science and Engineering:
<ulink url="http://www.comsoc.org/vancouver/scieng.html">
<literal>http://www.comsoc.org/vancouver/scieng.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>GNU Troff (<emphasis>groff</emphasis>) Info:
<ulink url="http://www.cs.pdx.edu/~trent/gnu/groff/">
<literal>http://www.cs.pdx.edu/~trent/gnu/groff/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Gnus 5.x:
<ulink url="http://www.ccs.neu.edu/software/contrib/gnus/">
<literal>http://www.ccs.neu.edu/software/contrib/gnus/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>KDE FAQ: <ulink
url="http://www.kde.org/faq.html">
<literal>http://www.kde.org/faq.html</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>GNU General Public License FAQ: <ulink
url="http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl-faq.html">
<literal>http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl-faq.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux PPP FAQ: <ulink
url="http://www.linuxinfor.com/en/pppfaq/PPP-FAQ.html">
<literal>http://www.linuxinfor.com/en/pppfaq/PPP-FAQ.html</literal>
</ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linux-Raid FAQ: <ulink
url="http://www.linuxinfor.com/en/raidfaq/index.html">
<literal>http://www.linuxinfor.com/en/raidfaq/index.html</literal>
</ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>List of Periodic Information Postings:
<ulink url="ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/news.answers/periodic-postings/">
<literal>ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/news.answers/periodic-postings/
</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>News.newusers.announce FAQ <ulink
url="http://web.presby.edu/~nnqadmin/nan/">
<literal>http://web.presby.edu/~nnqadmin/nan/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Online Linux Resources: <ulink
url="http://www.linuxinfor.com/en/docfaq.htm">
<literal>http://www.linuxinfor.com/en/docfaq.htm</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>O'Reilly &amp; Associates Openbook Project:
<ulink url="http://www.oreilly.com/openbook/">
<literal>http://www.oreilly.com/openbook/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><application>Sendmail</application>:
<ulink url="http://www.sendmail.org/faq/">
<literal>http://www.sendmail.org/faq/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><citetitle>Sendmail: Installation and Operation Guide:</citetitle>
Formatted and <emphasis>me</emphasis> source versions
are in the <literal>doc/</literal> subdirectory of
<application>Sendmail</application> source code distributions.
<ulink url="http://www.sendmail.org/">
<literal>http://www.sendmail.org/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Technical FAQ for Linux Users: <ulink
url="http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-faq/?n-l-7261">
<literal>
http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-faq/?n-l-7261
</literal></ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Web Internet Search Engine:
<ulink url="http://www.infobasic.com/pagefaq.html">
<literal>http://www.infobasic.com/pagefaq.html</literal></ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Wu-ftpd:
<ulink url="http://www.wu-ftpd.org/man/">
<literal>http://www.wu-ftpd.org/man/</literal></ulink> (really a
collection of man pages), with HOWTO's at: <ulink
url="http://www.wu-ftpd.org/HOWTO/">
<literal>http://www.wu-ftpd.org/HOWTO/</literal></ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem><para>
XTERM&mdash;Frequently Asked Questions.
<ulink url="http://dickey.his.com/xterm/xterm.faq.html">
<literal>http://dickey.his.com/xterm/xterm.faq.html</literal>
</ulink>.
</para></listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="2.6">
<title id="get-linux-material-by-ftp">
Where Are the Linux FTP Archives?</title>
<para>
There are three main archive sites for Linux:
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.funet.fi/pub/OS/Linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.funet.fi/pub/OS/Linux/</literal></ulink>
(Finland).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/</literal></ulink>. Recently
renamed to
<ulink url="http://ibiblio.org/pub/linux/">
<literal>http://ibiblio.org/pub/linux/</literal></ulink> with a nice
WWW interface.
(US).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<ulink url="ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu//pub/linux/">
<literal>ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/</literal></ulink>
(US).</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>
The best place to get the Linux kernel is
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/</literal></ulink>.
Linus Torvalds uploads the most recent kernel versions to this site.
</para>
<para>
Of the U.S. distributions, Debian GNU/Linux is available at
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.debian.org/pub/debian/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.debian.org/pub/debian/</literal></ulink>.
Red Hat Linux's home site is
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.redhat.com/"><literal>ftp://ftp.redhat.com/</literal>
</ulink>, and Linux Slackware's is
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.freesoftware.com/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.freesoftware.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The Small Linux distribution, which can run in 2 MB of RAM, is located
at
<ulink url="http://smalllinux.netpedia.net/">
<literal>http://smalllinux.netpedia.net/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The contents of these sites is mirrored (copied, usually approximately
daily) by a number of other sites. Please use a site close to you&mdash;it
will be faster for you and easier on the network.
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.sun.ac.za/pub/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.sun.ac.za/pub/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(South Africa)</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.is.co.za/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.is.co.za/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(South Africa).
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.cs.cuhk.hk/pub/Linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.cs.cuhk.hk/pub/Linux/</literal></ulink>
(Hong Kong).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://sunsite.ust.hk/pub/Linux/">
<literal>ftp://sunsite.ust.hk/pub/Linux/</literal></ulink>
(Hong Kong).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.spin.ad.jp/pub/linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.spin.ad.jp/pub/linux/</literal></ulink>
(Japan).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.nuri.net/pub/Linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.nuri.net/pub/Linux/</literal></ulink>
(Korea).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.jaring.my/pub/Linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.jaring.my/pub/Linux/</literal></ulink>
(Malaysia).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.nus.sg/pub/unix/Linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.nus.sg/pub/unix/Linux/</literal></ulink>
(Singapore).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.nectec.or.th/pub/mirrors/linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.nectec.or.th/pub/mirrors/linux/</literal></ulink>
(Thailand).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://planetmirror.com/pub/linux">
<literal>ftp://planetmirror.com/pub/linux
</literal></ulink> (Australia). (Also take a look at
<ulink url="http://planetmirror.com/archives.php">
<literal>http://planetmirror.com/archives.php</literal></ulink>.)
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.monash.edu.au/pub/linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.monash.edu.au/pub/linux/</literal></ulink>
(Australia).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.univie.ac.at/systems/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.univie.ac.at/systems/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Austria).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.fi.muni.cz/pub/UNIX/linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.fi.muni.cz/pub/UNIX/linux/</literal></ulink>
(Czech Republic).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.funet.fi/pub/Linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.funet.fi/pub/Linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Finland).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.univ-angers.fr/pub/Linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.univ-angers.fr/pub/Linux/</literal></ulink>
(France).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.iut-bm.univ-fcomte.fr/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.iut-bm.univ-fcomte.fr/</literal></ulink>
(France).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.ibp.fr/pub/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.ibp.fr/pub/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(France)</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.loria.fr/pub/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.loria.fr/pub/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(France).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.dfv.rwth-aachen.de/pub/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.dfv.rwth-aachen.de/pub/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Germany).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.germany.eu.net/pub/os/Linux/Mirror.SunSITE/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.germany.eu.net/pub/os/Linux/Mirror.SunSITE/
</literal></ulink>(Germany).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.tu-dresden.de/pub/Linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.tu-dresden.de/pub/Linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Germany).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.uni-erlangen.de/pub/Linux/MIRROR.sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.uni-erlangen.de/pub/Linux/MIRROR.sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Germany).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.gwdg.de/pub/linux/mirrors/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.gwdg.de/pub/linux/mirrors/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Germany).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp.rz.uni-karlsruhe.de/pub/linux/mirror.sunsite/">
<literal>ftp.rz.uni-karlsruhe.de/pub/linux/mirror.sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Germany).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.ba-mannheim.de/pub/linux/mirror.sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.ba-mannheim.de/pub/linux/mirror.sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Germany).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.uni-paderborn.de/pub/Mirrors/sunsite.unc.edu/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.uni-paderborn.de/pub/Mirrors/sunsite.unc.edu/
</literal></ulink>(Germany).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.uni-rostock.de/Linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.uni-rostock.de/Linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Germany).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp.rus.uni-stuttgart.de/pub/unix/systems/linux/MIRROR.sunsite/">
<literal>ftp.rus.uni-stuttgart.de/pub/unix/systems/linux/MIRROR.sunsite/
</literal></ulink>(Germany).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.uni-tuebingen.de/pub/linux/Mirror.sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.uni-tuebingen.de/pub/linux/Mirror.sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Germany).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.kfki.hu/pub/linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.kfki.hu/pub/linux/</literal></ulink>(Hungary).
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://linux.italnet.it/pub/Linux/">
<literal>ftp://linux.italnet.it/pub/Linux/</literal></ulink>(Italy).
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.unina.it/pub/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.unina.it/pub/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Italy).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://giotto.unipd.it/pub/unix/Linux/">
<literal>ftp://giotto.unipd.it/pub/unix/Linux/</literal></ulink>
(Italy).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://cnuce-arch.cnr.it/pub/Linux/">
<literal>ftp://cnuce-arch.cnr.it/pub/Linux/</literal></ulink>
(Italy).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.flashnet.it/mirror2/metalab.unc.edu/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.flashnet.it/mirror2/metalab.unc.edu/</literal></ulink>
(Italy).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.nijenrode.nl/pub/linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.nijenrode.nl/pub/linux/</literal></ulink>
(Netherlands).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.LeidenUniv.nl/pub/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.LeidenUniv.nl/pub/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Netherlands).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.nvg.unit.no/pub/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.nvg.unit.no/pub/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Norway).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://sunsite.icm.edu.pl/pub/Linux/metalab.unc.edu/">
<literal>ftp://sunsite.icm.edu.pl/pub/Linux/metalab.unc.edu/</literal></ulink>
(Poland).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.rediris.es/software/os/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.rediris.es/software/os/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Spain).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://sunsite.rediris.es/software/linux/">
<literal>ftp://sunsite.rediris.es/software/linux/</literal></ulink>
(Spain).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.cs.us.es/pub/Linux/sunsite-mirror/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.cs.us.es/pub/Linux/sunsite-mirror/</literal></ulink>
(Spain).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.etse.urv.es/pub/mirror/linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.etse.urv.es/pub/mirror/linux/</literal></ulink>
(Spain).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.etsimo.uniovi.es/pub/linux/">
<literal>ftp://tp.etsimo.uniovi.es/pub/linux/</literal></ulink>
(Spain).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.luna.gui.es/pub/linux.new/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.luna.gui.es/pub/linux.new/</literal></ulink>
(Spain).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.metu.edu.tr/pub/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.metu.edu.tr/pub/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Turkey).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://unix.hensa.ac.uk/mirrors/sunsite/pub/Linux/">
<literal>ftp://unix.hensa.ac.uk/mirrors/sunsite/pub/Linux/</literal></ulink>
(UK).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp.maths.warwick.ac.uk/mirrors/linux/sunsite.unc-mirror/">
<literal>ftp.maths.warwick.ac.uk/mirrors/linux/sunsite.unc-mirror/
</literal></ulink>(UK).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.idiscover.co.uk/pub/Linux/sunsite.unc-mirror/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.idiscover.co.uk/pub/Linux/sunsite.unc-mirror/
</literal></ulink>(UK).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://sunsite.doc.ic.ac.uk/packages/linux/sunsite.unc-mirror/">
<literal>ftp://sunsite.doc.ic.ac.uk/packages/linux/sunsite.unc-mirror/
</literal></ulink>(UK).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url=""><literal></literal></ulink>
(UK)
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.io.org/pub/mirrors/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.io.org/pub/mirrors/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(Canada).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.cc.gatech.edu/pub/linux/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.cc.gatech.edu/pub/linux/</literal></ulink>
(US).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.freesoftware.com/pub/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.freesoftware.com/pub/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(US).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.siriuscc.com/pub/Linux/Sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.siriuscc.com/pub/Linux/Sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(US).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.engr.uark.edu/pub/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.engr.uark.edu/pub/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(US).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.infomagic.com/pub/mirrors/linux/sunsite/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.infomagic.com/pub/mirrors/linux/sunsite/</literal></ulink>
(US).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://linux.if.usp.br/pub/mirror/metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/">
<literal>ftp://linux.if.usp.br/pub/mirror/metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/</literal>
</ulink>(Brazil).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
<ulink url="ftp://farofa.ime.usp.br/pub/linux/">
<literal>ftp://farofa.ime.usp.br/pub/linux/</literal></ulink>
(Brazil).</para></listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>
Please send updates and corrections to this list to the Linux
FAQ maintainer,
<ulink url="mailto:rkiesling@mainmatter.com">
<literal>rkiesling@mainmatter.com</literal></ulink>.
Not all of these mirror all of the other ``source'' sites, and some
have material not available on the ``source'' sites.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="2.7">
<title id="i-dont-have-ftp-access">
How To Get Linux without FTP Access.</title>
<para>
The easiest thing is probably to find a friend with FTP access. If
there is a Linux user's group near you, they may be able to help.
</para>
<para>
If you have a reasonably good email connection, you could try the
FTP-by-mail servers at
<ulink url="mailto:ftpmail@ftp.sunet.se">
<literal>ftpmail@ftp.sunet.se</literal></ulink>,
or
<ulink url="mailto:ftpmail@ftp.uni-stuttgart.de">
<literal>ftpmail@ftp.uni-stuttgart.de</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Linux is also available via traditional mail on CD-ROM. The file
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/Installation-HOWTO">
<literal>
ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/Installation-HOWTO</literal>
</ulink>, and the file
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/Distribution-HOWTO">
<literal>
ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/Distribution-HOWTO</literal>
</ulink> contain information on these distributions.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="2.8">
<title id="i-dont-have-usenet-access">
How To Get Information without Usenet Access.</title>
<para>
A digest of comp.os.linux.announce is available by mailing the word
"subscribe" (without the quotes) as the body of a message to
<ulink url="mailto:linux-announce-REQUEST@news-digests.mit.edu">
<literal>linux-announce-REQUEST@news-digests.mit.edu</literal></ulink>.
Subscribing to this list is a good idea, as it carries important
information and documentation about Linux.
</para>
<para>
Please remember to use the *-request addresses for your subscribe and
unsubscribe messages; mail to the other address is posted to the news group.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="2.9">
<title id="what-mailing-lists-are-there">
What Mailing Lists Are There?</title>
<para>
The Linux developers now mainly use the Majordomo server at
<ulink url="mailto:majordomo@vger.redhat.com">
<literal>majordomo@vger.redhat.com</literal></ulink>.
Send a message with the word "lists" (without the quotes) in the body
to get a list of lists there. Add a line with the word, "help," to get
the standard Majordomo help file that lists instructions for subscribing and
unsubscribing to the lists.
</para>
<para>
Currently, the kernel list is archived at:
<ulink url="http://www.uwsg.indiana.edu/hypermail/linux/kernel/">
<literal>http://www.uwsg.indiana.edu/hypermail/linux/kernel/</literal>
</ulink>, and
<ulink url="http://www.lib.uaa.alaska.edu/linux-kernel/archive/">
<literal>http://www.lib.uaa.alaska.edu/linux-kernel/archive/</literal>
</ulink>
</para>
<para>
Please do not post off-topic material to the mailing lists. Most of
them are used by Linux developers to talk about technical issues and
future developments. They are not intended for new users' questions,
advertisements, or public postings that are not directly related to
the mailing list's subject matter.
<citetitle>Comp.os.linux.announce</citetitle> is the place for all
public announcements. This is a common Internet policy. If you don't
observe this guideline, there's a good chance that you'll be flamed.
</para>
<para>
There is a linux-newbie list where, "no question is too stupid."
Unfortunately, it seems that few experienced users read that list, and
it has very low volume.
</para>
<para>
There are numerous Linux related mailing lists at
<ulink url="http://www.onelist.com/">
<literal>http://www.onelist.com/</literal></ulink>. Go to the
categories page and choose "Linux." There are also mailing list
subscription links at:
<ulink url="http://oslab.snu.ac.kr/~djshin/linux/mail-list/">
<literal>http://oslab.snu.ac.kr/~djshin/linux/mail-list/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The <citetitle>Mailing Lists Available in Usenet</citetitle> page is:
<ulink url="http://paml.net/">
<literal>http://paml.net/</literal></ulink>. The list information
is also on:
<ulink url="ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/">
<literal>ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/</literal></ulink>, and is posted to the
groups: <literal>news.announce.newgroups</literal>,
<literal>news.lists</literal>, and <literal>news.groups</literal>,
among others.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="2.10">
<title id="where-are-linux-legal-issues-discussed">
Where Are Linux Legal Issues Discussed?</title>
<para>
On the linux-legal mailing list, of course. You can subscribe to it,
as with many of the other Linux related lists, by sending a message
with the word "help" in the body of the message to
<ulink url="mailto:majordomo@vger.redhat.com">
<literal>majordomo@vger.redhat.com</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="2.11">
<title id="free-software-projects">
Sources of Information for Unmaintained Free Software Projects.</title>
<para>
There are Web pages at:
<ulink url="http://unmaintained.sourceforge.net">
<literal>http://unmaintained.sourceforge.net</literal></ulink>, and:
<ulink url="http://www.orphansource.org/">
<literal>http://www.orphansource.org/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Please try to contact the original author(s) via e-mail, or the person
who listed the software as unmaintained, before even thinking to place
a license on the package.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="2.12">
<title id="are-the-newsgroups-archived-anywhere">
Are the News Groups Archived Anywhere?</title>
<para>
The Usenet Linux news groups are archived at
<ulink url="http://groups.google.com/">
<literal>http://groups.google.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/linux-announce.archive">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/linux-announce.archive
</literal></ulink> contains archives of
<citetitle>comp.os.linux.announce</citetitle>. These are mirrored from
<ulink url="ftp://src.doc.ic.ac.uk/usenet/">
<literal>ftp://src.doc.ic.ac.uk/usenet/</literal></ulink>, which also
archives <citetitle>comp.os.linux</citetitle>,
<citetitle>comp.os.linux.development.apps</citetitle>, and
<citetitle>comp.os.linux.development.system</citetitle>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="2.13">
<title id="about-security-related-issues">
Where To Find Information About Security Related Issues.</title>
<para>
There's a page of Linux related security information at:
<ulink url="http://www.linuxsecurity.com/">
<literal>http://www.linuxsecurity.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Another site is:
<ulink url="http://www.rootshell.com/">
<literal>http://www.rootshell.com/</literal></ulink>, which has
information about Internet security and privacy issues.
</para>
<para>
For information about the <citetitle>Weekly Linux Security
Digest</citetitle> email newsletter and numerous security
related databases, look at <ulink url="http://securityportal.com/">
<literal>http://securityportal.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="2.14">
<title id="linux-standards">
Where To Find Linux System Specifications.</title>
<para>
As a start, look at the Linux Standards Base,
<ulink url="http://www.linuxbase.org/">
<literal>http://www.linuxbase.org/</literal></ulink>.
The site contains information about test software, file
system organization, and shared library naming conventions.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 label="3">
<title>Compatibility with Other Operating Systems</title>
<sect2 label="3.1">
<title id="can-linux-share-my-disk-with-dos">
Can Linux Use the Same Hard Drive as MS-DOS? OS/2? 386BSD? Win95?</title>
<para>
Yes. Linux uses the standard MS-DOS partitioning scheme, so it can
share your disk with other operating systems.
</para>
<para>
Linux has loadable kernel modules for (presumably) all versions of
Microsoft FAT and VFAT file systems, including Windows 2000 and
WindowsMe. In a correctly configured system, they should load
automatically when the partitions are mounted.
</para>
<para>
Note, however, that many other operating systems may not be exactly
compatible. DOS's <filename>FDISK.EXE</filename> and
<filename>FORMAT.EXE</filename>, for example, can overwrite data in a
Linux partition, because they sometimes incorrectly use partition data
from the partition's boot sector rather than the partition table.
</para>
<para>
In order to prevent programs from doing this, it is a good idea to
zero out&mdash;under Linux&mdash;the start of a partition you created, before
you use MS-DOS&mdash;or whatever&mdash;to format it. Type:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
$ dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/hdXY bs=512 count=1
</screen>
</para>
<para>
where <emphasis>hdXY</emphasis> is the relevant partition; e.g.,
<filename>/dev/hda1</filename> for the first partition of the first
(IDE) disk.
</para>
<para>
Linux can read and write the files on your DOS and OS/2 FAT partitions
and floppies using either the DOS file system type built into the
kernel or mtools. There is kernel support for the VFAT file system
used by Windows 9x and Windows NT.
</para>
<para>
There is reportedly a GPL'd OS/2 device driver that will read and
write Linux ext2 partitions.
</para>
<para>
For information about FAT32 partition support, see
<ulink url="http://bmrc.berkeley.edu/people/chaffee/fat32.html">
<literal>http://bmrc.berkeley.edu/people/chaffee/fat32.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
See, (``<xref linkend="what-software-does-linux-support"
endterm="what-software-does-linux-support">'') for details and status
of the emulators for DOS, MS Windows, and System V programs.
</para>
<para>
See also, "Can Linux access Amiga file systems? ", "Can
Linux access Macintosh file systems? ", "Can Linux access BSD,
SysV, etc., UFS? ", and "Can Linux access SMB file systems? "
</para>
<para>
There are said to be NTFS drivers under development, which should
support compression as a standard feature.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="3.2">
<title id="how-do-i-access-files-on-my-dos-partition">
How To Access Files on a MS-DOS Partition or Floppy.</title>
<para>
Use the DOS file system, type, for example:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ mkdir /dos
$ mount -t msdos -o conv=text,umask=022,uid=100,gid=100 /dev/hda3 /dos
</screen></para>
<para>
If it's a floppy, don't forget to umount it before ejecting it!
</para>
<para>
You can use the <literal>conv=text/binary/auto</literal>,
<literal>umask=nnn</literal>, <literal>uid=nnn</literal>, and
<literal>gid=nnn</literal> options to control the automatic
line-ending conversion, permissions and ownerships of the files in the
DOS file system as they appear under Linux. If you mount your DOS file
system by putting it in your <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>, you can
record the options (comma-separated) there, instead of defaults.
</para>
<para>
Alternatively, you can use mtools, available in both binary and source
form on the FTP sites.
(``<xref linkend="get-linux-material-by-ftp"
endterm="get-linux-material-by-ftp">'')
</para>
<para>
A kernel patch (known as the fd-patches) is available which allows
floppies with nonstandard numbers of tracks and/or sectors to be used;
this patch is included in the 1.1 alpha testing kernel series.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="3.3">
<title id="support-compressed-ext2-file-systems">
Does Linux Support Compressed Ext2 File Systems?</title>
<para>
The <literal>ext2compr</literal> project provides a
kernel patch Information about them is located at
<ulink url="http://e2ompr.memalpha.cx/e2compr/">
<literal>http://e2ompr.memalpha.cx/e2compr/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
There is also a Web site for the e2compr patches. The code is still
experimental and consists of patches for the 2.0 and 2.1 kernels. For
more information about the project, including the latest patches, and
the address of the mailing list, look up the URL at
<ulink url="http://debs.fuller.edu/e2compr/">
<literal>http://debs.fuller.edu/e2compr/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Roderich Schupp, Peter Moulder&rsqb;
</para>
<para>
<citetitle>zlibc</citetitle> is a program that allows existing
applications to read compressed (GNU gzip'ed) files as if they were
not compressed. Look at
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/libs/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/libs/</literal></ulink>. The
author is Alain Knaff.
</para>
<para>
There is also a compressing block device driver, "DouBle," by
Jean-Marc Verbavatz, which can provide on-the-fly disk compression in
the kernel. The source-only distribution is located at
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/patches/diskdrives/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/patches/diskdrives/</literal>
</ulink>. This driver compresses inodes and directory information as
well as files, so any corruption of the file system is likely to be
serious.
</para>
<para>
There is also a package called tcx (Transparently Compressed
Executables), which allows you to keep infrequently used
executables compressed and only uncompress them temporarily when in
use. It is located at
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/utils/compress/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/utils/compress/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="3.4">
<title id="can-i-use-my-stacked">
Can Linux Use Stacked/DBLSPC/Etc. DOS Drives?</title>
<para>
Until recently, not very easily. You can access DOS 6.X volumes from
the DOS emulator ("What software does Linux support? "), but
it's harder than accessing a normal DOS volume via the DOS kernel
option, a module, or mtools.
</para>
<para>
There is a recently added package, dmsdos, that reads and writes
compressed file systems like DoubleSpace/DriveSpace in MS-DOS 6.x and
Win95, as well as Stacker versions 3 and 4. It is a loadable kernel
module. Look at
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/filesystems/dosfs/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/filesystems/dosfs/
</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="3.5">
<title id="can-i-access-os2-hpfs">
Can Linux Access OS/2 HPFS Partitions?</title>
<para>
Yes, but Linux access to HPFS partitions is read-only. HPFS file
system access is available as an option when compiling the kernel or
as a module. See the
<filename>Documentation/filesystems/hpfs.txt</filename> file in the
kernel source distribution. (``<xref
linkend="upgrade-recompile-kernel"
endterm="upgrade-recompile-kernel">'') Then you can mount HPFS
partition, using, for example:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ mkdir /hpfs
$ mount -t hpfs /dev/hda5 /hpfs
</screen></para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="3.6">
<title id="can-linux-access-amiga-file-systems">
Can Linux Access Amiga File Systems?</title>
<para>
The Linux kernel has support for the Amiga Fast File System (AFFS)
version 1.3 and later, both as a compile-time option and as a module.
The file <filename>Documentation/filesystems/affs.txt</filename> in
the Linux kernel source distribution has more information.
</para>
<para>
See
(``<xref linkend="upgrade-recompile-kernel"
endterm="upgrade-recompile-kernel">'')
</para>
<para>
Linux supports AFFS hard-drive partitions only. Floppy access is not
supported due to incompatibilities between Amiga floppy controllers
and PC and workstation controllers. The AFFS driver can also mount
disk partitions used by the Un*x Amiga Emulator, by Bernd Schmidt.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="3.7">
<title id="can-linux-access-bsd-sysv">
Can Linux Access BSD, SysV, Etc. UFS?</title>
<para>
Recent kernels can mount (read only) the UFS file system used by
System V; Coherent; Xenix; BSD; and derivatives like SunOS, FreeBSD,
NetBSD, and NeXTStep. UFS support is available as a kernel
compile-time option and a module.
</para>
<para>
See,
(``<xref linkend="upgrade-recompile-kernel"
endterm="upgrade-recompile-kernel">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="3.8">
<title id="can-linux-access-smb-file-systems">
Can Linux Access SMB File Systems?</title>
<para>
Linux supports read/write access of Windows for Workgroups and Windows
NT SMB volumes. See the file Documentation/filesystems/smbfs.txt of
the Linux kernel source distribution, and
(``<xref linkend="upgrade-recompile-kernel"
endterm="upgrade-recompile-kernel">'')
</para>
<para>
There is also a suite of programs called Samba which provide support
for WfW networked file systems (provided they're for TCP/IP).
Information is available in the <filename>README</filename> file at
<ulink url="metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/network/samba/">
<literal>metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/network/samba/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The SMB Web site is
<ulink url="http://www.samba.org/">
<literal>http://www.samba.org/</literal></ulink>, and there is also a
Web site at <ulink url="samba.anu.edu.au/samba/">
<literal>samba.anu.edu.au/samba/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="3.9">
<title id="can-linux-access-macintosh-file-systems">
Can Linux Access Macintosh File Systems?</title>
<para>
There is a set of user-level programs that read and write the older
Macintosh Hierarchical File System (HFS). It is available at
<ulink url="metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/utils/disk-management/">
<literal>metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/utils/disk-management/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Access to the newer, HFS+ file systems is still under development.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="3.10">
<title id="microsoft-windows-programs-underlinux">
Can Linux Run Microsoft Windows Programs?</title>
<para>
WINE, a MS Windows emulator for Linux, is still not ready for general
distribution. If you want to contribute to its development, look for
the status reports in the
<citetitle>comp.emulators.ms-windows.wine</citetitle> newsgroup.
</para>
<para>
There is also a FAQ, compiled by P. David Gardner, at
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/faqs/Wine-FAQ/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/faqs/Wine-FAQ/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
In the meantime, if you need to run MS Windows programs, the best
bet&mdash;seriously&mdash;is to reboot. LILO, the Linux boot loader, can boot
one of several operating systems from a menu. See the LILO
documentation for details.
</para>
<para>
Also, <filename>LOADLIN.EXE</filename> (a DOS program to load a Linux,
or other OS, kernel is one way to make Linux co-exist with DOS.
<filename>LOADLIN.EXE</filename> is particularly handy when you want
to install Linux on a 3rd or 4th drive on a system (or when you're
adding a SCSI drive to a system with an existing IDE).
</para>
<para>
In these cases, it is common for LILO's boot loader to be unable to
find or load the kernel on the "other" drive. So you just create a
<filename>C:\LINUX</filename> directory (or whatever), put
<filename>LOADLIN.EXE</filename> in it with a copy of your kernel, and
use that.
</para>
<para>
<filename>LOADLIN.EXE</filename> is a VCPI compliant program. Win95
will want to, "shutdown into DOS mode," to run it (as it would with
certain other DOS protected-mode programs).
</para>
<para>
Earlier versions of <filename>LOADLIN.EXE</filename> sometimes
required a package called <filename>REALBIOS.COM</filename>, which
required a boot procedure on an (almost) blank floppy to map the
interrupt vectors (prior to the loading of any software
drivers). (Current versions don't seem to ship with it, and don't seem
to need it).
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Jim Dennis&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="3.11">
<title id="information0about-nfs-compatibility">
Where Is Information about NFS Compatibility?</title>
<para>
This information is partly taken from Nicolai Langfeldt's excellent
NFS HOWTO, and is current as of 10/1/1999.
</para>
<para>
Most version 2.2.x kernels need a set of patches to install the
<command>knfsd</command>
subsystem, maintained by H.J. Lu, to communicate efficiently (if at
all) with Sparc, IBM RS, and Alpha machines, and probably others. This
package is actually a collection of patches to the kernel sources.
Better support for non-Intel architectures is included in the
2.4 kernels.
</para>
<para>
There is also a user-space server. Although it lacks remote file
locking, it is easier to install. It may be equally efficient.
</para>
<para>
In the <filename>Documentation/Changes</filename> of recent kernel
distributions, there is a list of URL's for both the
<command>knfsd</command> server and the user-space server.
</para>
<para>
There is a CVS server available for the kernel-space NFS subsystem, as
well as a NFS WWW page at
<ulink url="http://www.linuxnfs.sourceforge.org/">
<literal>http://www.linuxnfs.sourceforge.org/</literal></ulink>,
although the URL requires a password for access. The relevant URL's
are listed in the <filename>README.nfs</filename> file at
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.us.kernel.org/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.us.kernel.org/</literal></ulink>, and other kernel
archive sites, along with login information. Patches are at
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.varesearch.com/pub/kernel/latest/patches/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.varesearch.com/pub/kernel/latest/patches/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The source archives of the user-space server and utilities currently
reside on
<ulink url="ftp://linux.mathematik.tu-darmstadt.de:/pub/linux/people/okir/">
<literal>ftp://linux.mathematik.tu-darmstadt.de:/pub/linux/people/okir/
</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
In the case of older Solaris releases, the lack of
<literal>statd</literal> or <literal>lockd</literal> on a client or
server machine may cause incompatibility. On some versions of
Solaris, <literal>statd</literal> can be used to exploit features of
the automounter. Sun released a patch to correct this, but <literal>
statd</literal> still needs to be started by root on such systems. On
recent Solaris systems, refer to the information in
<literal>/etc/dfs/dfstab</literal> and the
<literal>share(1M)</literal> manual page to enable volume sharing. In
addition, the <literal>rpcinfo</literal> program can tell you if
<literal>statd</literal> or <literal>lockd</literal> are available on
the local or remote machines.
</para>
<para>
The <literal>linux-kernel</literal> mailing list has on-and-off
discussions of the status of the NFS subsystem, which appears to be
changing rapidly.
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Nicolai Langfeldt, Robert Kiesling, Anders Hammarquist&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="3.12">
<title id="true-type-fonts-with-linux">
Can Linux Use True Type Fonts?</title>
<para>
Yes. There are a number of True Type font servers for the X Window
System. One of them is <command>xfsft</command>. Its home page is
<ulink url="http://www.dcs.ed.ac.uk/home/jec/programs/xfsft/">
<literal>http://www.dcs.ed.ac.uk/home/jec/programs/xfsft/</literal></ulink>.
There are also instructions for configuration.
</para>
<para>
People have reported success with other True Type font servers. There
are links from the <command>xfsft</command> Home Page to them as well.
</para>
<para>
You can also compile True Type Font support into your X server
directly. Again, refer to the <command>xfsft</command> Home Page for
details.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="3.13">
<title id="boot-linux-from-ms-dos">
Can Linux Boot from MS-DOS?</title>
<para>
If LILO doesn't work, and if the machine has MS-DOS or Microsoft
Windows, you may be left with a computer that won't boot. This can
also happen on an upgrade to your Linux distribution. Re-installing
LILO is the last thing that the installation does. So it is vitally
important when installing or upgrading Linux on a dual boot machine,
to have a MS-DOS or Windows rescue disk nearby so you can
<literal>FDISK -MBR</literal>. Then you can go about using
<filename>LOADLIN.EXE</filename> instead of LILO.
</para>
<para>
This <filename>config.sys</filename> file is one possible way to
invoke <filename>LOADLIN.EXE</filename> and boot MS-DOS or Linux.
</para>
<para><screen>
[menu]
menuitem=DOS, Dos Boot
menuitem=LINUX, Linux Boot
[LINUX]
shell=c:\redhat\loadlin.exe c:\redhat\autoboot\vmlinuz vga=5 root=/dev
[DOS]
STACKS = 0,0
rem all the other DOS drivers get loaded here.
</screen></para>
<para>
This creates a menu where you can directly jump to
<filename>LOADLIN.EXE</filename> before all of the MS-DOS drivers get
loaded.
</para>
<para>
The paths and options are peculiar to one machine and should be
intuitively obvious to the most casual observer. See the
<filename>LOADLIN.EXE</filename> docs for options. They are the same
as LILO, and options are just passed to the kernel, anyhow.
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Jim Harvey&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="3.14">
<title id="boot-linux-from-os2s-boot">
How Can Linux Boot from OS/2's Boot Manager?</title>
<para>
<orderedlist numeration="Arabic">
<listitem><para> Create a partition using OS/2's
<filename>FDISK.EXE</filename> (Not Linux's <command>fdisk</command>).
</para></listitem> <listitem><para> Format the partition under OS/2,
either with FAT or HPFS. This is so that OS/2 knows about the
partition being formatted. (This step is not necessary with OS/2
`warp' 3.0.) </para></listitem> <listitem><para> Add the partition to
the Boot Manager. </para></listitem> <listitem><para> Boot Linux, and
create a file system on the partition using <command>mkfs -t
ext2</command> or <command>mke2fs</command>. At this point you may,
if you like, use Linux's <command>fdisk</command> to change the code
of the new partition to type 83 (Linux Native)&mdash;this may help some
automated installation scripts find the right partition to use.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para> Install Linux on the partition.
</para></listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Install LILO on the Linux partition&mdash;NOT on the master boot record
of the hard drive. This installs LILO as a second-stage boot
loader on the Linux partition itself, to start up the kernel
specified in the LILO configuration file. To do this, you should
put
</para>
<screen>
boot = /dev/hda2
</screen>
<para>
(where <filename>/dev/hda2</filename> is the partition you
want to boot from) in your
<filename>/etc/lilo/config</filename> or
<filename>/etc/lilo.config</filename> file.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Make sure that it is the Boot Manager partition that is marked
active, so that you can use Boot Manager to choose what to boot.
</para></listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para>
There is a set of HOWTO's on the subject of multi-boot systems at the
LDP Home Page,
<ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org/">
<literal>http://www.linuxdoc.org/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 label="4">
<title>File Systems, Disks, and Drives</title>
<sect2 label="4.1">
<title id="linux-to-work-with-my-disk">
How To Get Linux to Work with a Disk.</title>
<para>
If your disk is an IDE or EIDE drive, you should read the file
<filename>/usr/src/linux/drivers/block/README.ide</filename>
(part of the Linux kernel
source code). This <filename>README</filename> contains many
helpful hints about IDE
drives. Many modern IDE controllers do translation between `physical'
cylinders/heads/sectors, and `logical' ones.
</para>
<para>
SCSI disks are accessed by linear block numbers. The BIOS invents some
`logical' cylinder/head/sector fiction to support DOS.
</para>
<para>
Older IBM PC-compatible BIOS's will usually not be able to access
partitions which extend beyond 1024 logical cylinders, and will make
booting a Linux kernel from such partitions using LILO problematic at
best.
</para>
<para>
You can still use such partitions for Linux or other operating systems
that access the controller directly.
</para>
<para>
It's recommend that you create at least one Linux partition entirely
under the 1024 logical cylinder limit, and boot from that. The other
partitions will then be okay.
</para>
<para>
Also there seems to be a bit of trouble with the newer Ultra-DMA
drives. I haven't gotten the straight scoop on them&mdash;but they are
becoming a very common problem at the SVLUG installfests. When you can
get 8 to 12 Gig drives for $200 to $300 it's no wonder.
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Jim Dennis&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.2">
<title id="undelete-files">How To Undelete Files.</title>
<para>
In general, this is very hard to do on unices because of their
multitasking nature. Undelete functionality for the
<citetitle>ext2fs</citetitle> file system
is being worked on, but don't hold your breath.
</para>
<para>
There are a number of packages available which instead provide new
commands for deleting and copying which move deleted files into a
`wastebasket' directory. The files can be recovered until cleaned out
automatically by background processing.
</para>
<para>
The Midnight Commander file manager provides an undelete facility that
uses Ext2 file system library functions and an undelete directory
for each file system. Commercial distribution packages of MC may or
may not have this feature enabled, so be sure to look in the source
code distribution for instructions on how to enable the undelete
feature.
</para>
<para>
Alternatively, you can search the raw disk device which holds the file
system in question. This is hard work, and you will need to be logged
in as root to do this. But it can be done. Run <command>grep</command>
on the raw device; e.g.:
</para>
<para><screen>
grep -b 'bookmarks' /dev/hda
</screen></para>
<para>
If the data has not been overwritten, you should be able to recover it
with a text editor.
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Dave Cinege, Daniel Novotny&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.3">
<title id="how-do-i-make-backups">How To Make Backups.</title>
<para>
You can back up a directory hierarchy or complete file system to any
media using GNU <command>tar</command> or
<command>cpio</command>, the standard *nix tools for this purpose.
<command>tar</command> seems to be the more commonly
used program currently, and includes
command line options to make compressed, incremental, and multi-volume
backups. Complete information is contained in the documentation, which
is in GNU Texinfo format.
</para>
<para>
The free program, <application>Amanda</application>,
receives a lot of mentions on Usenet. Its
home page is
<ulink url="http://www.amanda.org/">
<literal>http://www.amanda.org/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Several commercial backup utilities also exist. They are often
included in commercial distributions.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.4">
<title id="resize-a-partition-non-destructively">
How To Resize a Partition (Non-Destructively).</title>
<para>
Use the <command>FIPS.EXE</command> program, included with
most Linux distributions,under MS-DOS.
</para>
<para>
GNU <command>parted</command>, a partition editor, is stable enough
for non-guru, mere-mortal use with relative confidence. Source code
for the latest version is at: <ulink
url="ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/parted/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/parted/</literal></ulink>. There's
also a boot disk image for resizing root partitions and for running
<command>parted</command> on non-Linux machines. The disk image
may be easier for beginners. Building from source could require some
extra configuration.
</para>
<para>
Parted also has tutorial-style, plain-text documentation for Linux and
FAT (MS-DOS) file systems.
</para>
<para>
Also, some commercial distributions come with their own partitioning
software, like <application>Partition Magic</application>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.5">
<title id="defragmenter-for-ext2fs-etc">
Is There a Defragmenter for Ext2fs?</title>
<para>
Yes. There is <application>defrag</application>, a Linux file
system defragmenter for <citetitle>ext2</citetitle>,
<citetitle>Minix</citetitle>, and old-style
<citetitle>ext</citetitle> file systems.
It is available at
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/filesystems/defrag-0.70.tar.gz">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/filesystems/defrag-0.70.tar.gz
</literal></ulink>.</para>
<para>
Users of the <citetitle>ext2</citetitle> file system can probably
do without <application>defrag</application>, because
<citetitle>ext2</citetitle> contains extra code to keep
fragmentation reduced even in very full file systems.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.6">
<title id="create-file-system-on-a-floppy">
How To Create a File System on a Floppy.</title>
<para>
To format a 3.5-inch, high density floppy:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ fdformat /dev/fd0H1440
$ mkfs -t ext2 -m 0 /dev/fd0H1440 1440
</screen></para>
<para>
For a 5.25 inch floppy, use <filename>fd0h1200</filename> and
1200 as appropriate. For the
<filename>B:</filename> drive use <filename>fd1</filename> instead of
<filename>fd0</filename>.
</para>
<para>
The <command>-m 0</command> option tells
<application>mkfs.ext2</application> not to reserve any space on the disk
for the superuser&mdash;usually the last 10% is reserved for root.
</para>
<para>
The first command performs a low-level format. The second creates an
empty file system. You can mount the floppy like a hard disk partition
and simply <command>cp</command> and <command>mv</command> files, etc.
</para>
<para>
Device naming conventions generally are the same as for other unices.
They can be found in Matt Welsh's <citetitle>Installation and Getting
Started</citetitle> guide. Refer to
(``<xref linkend="howtos-and-other-documentation"
endterm="howtos-and-other-documentation">'')
A more detailed and technical description is
<citetitle>Linux Allocated Devices</citetitle> by H. Peter Anvin,
<ulink url="mailto:hpa@zytor.com">
<literal>hpa@zytor.com</literal></ulink>, which is
included in LaTeX and ASCII form in the kernel source distribution
(probably in <filename>/usr/src/kernel/Documentation/</filename>),
as <filename>devices.tex</filename> and
<filename>devices.txt</filename>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.7">
<title id="virtualized-file-systems-like-raid">
Does Linux Support Virtualized File Systems Like RAID?</title>
<para>
The most recent Linux kernels support software RAID, and they will
work with RAID disk controllers.
</para>
<para>
An automounter for NFS partitions is part of most Linux distributions.
</para>
<para>
In addition, several virtual file system projects exist. One of them,
the <citetitle>Linux Logical Volume Manager</citetitle>, is located at
<ulink url="http://linux.msede.com/lvm/">
<literal>http://linux.msede.com/lvm/</literal></ulink>.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.8">
<title id="support-file-system-encryption">
Does Linux Support File System Encryption?</title>
<para>
Yes. One file system, ppdd, is archived at
<ulink url="http://pweb.de.uu.net/flexsys.mtk/">
<literal>http://pweb.de.uu.net/flexsys.mtk/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.9">
<title id="nasty-messages-about-inodes">
Linux Prints Nasty Messages about Inodes, Blocks, and the Like.</title>
<para>
You may have a corrupted file system, probably caused by not shutting
Linux down properly before turning off the power or resetting. You
need to use a recent shutdown program to do this&mdash;for example, the one
included in the util-linux package, available on sunsite and tsx-11.
</para>
<para>
If you're lucky, the program <command>fsck</command> (or
<command>e2fsck</command> or <command>xfsck</command> as appropriate
if you don't have the automatic <command>fsck</command> front-end)
will be able to repair your file system. If you're unlucky, the file
system is trashed, and you'll have to re-initialize it with mkfs (or
<command>mke2fs</command>, <command>mkxfs</command>, etc.),
and restore from a backup.
</para>
<para>
NB: don't try to check a file system that's mounted read/write&mdash;this
includes the root partition, if you don't see
</para>
<para><screen>
VFS: mounted root ... read-only
</screen></para>
<para>
at boot time.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.10">
<title id="swap-area-isnt-working">
The Swap Area Isn't Working.</title>
<para>
When you boot (or enable swapping manually) you should see
</para>
<para><screen>
Adding Swap: NNNNk swap-space
</screen></para>
<para>
If you don't see any messages at all you are probably missing
</para>
<para><screen>
swapon -av
</screen></para>
<para>
(the command to enable swapping) in your /etc/rc.local or /etc/rc.d/*
(the system startup scripts), or have forgotten to make the right
entry in <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>:
</para>
<para><screen>
/dev/hda2 none swap sw
</screen></para>
<para>
for example.
</para>
<para>
If you see:
</para>
<para><screen>
Unable to find swap-space signature
</screen></para>
<para>
you have forgotten to run<command> mkswap</command>.
See the manual page for details; it
works much like <command>mkfs</command>.
</para>
<para>
Running, <command>free</command> in addition to showing
free memory, should display:
</para>
<para><screen>
total used free
Swap: 10188 2960 7228
</screen></para>
<para>
If typing ``<literal>cat /proc/swaps</literal>'' reveals only file
or partition names, but no swap space information, then the
swap file or partition needs re-initialization.
</para>
<para>
Use <command>fdisk</command> (as root) to determine which partition
on a hard drive has been designated as the swap partition. The partition
still needs to be initialized with <command>mkswap</command> before
enabling it with <command>swapon</command>.
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Andy Jefferson, Steve Withers&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.11">
<title id="add-temporary-swap-space">
How To Add Temporary Swap Space.</title>
<para>
In addition to a swap partition, Linux can also use a swap file. Some
programs, like <application>g++</application>, can use huge amounts of
virtual memory, requiring
the temporary creation of extra space. To install an extra 64 MB of
swap space, for example, use the following shell commands:
</para>
<para><screen>
# dd if=/dev/zero of=/swap bs=1024 count=65535
# mkswap /swap
# swapon /swap
</screen></para>
<para>
The <command>count=</command> argument to <command>dd</command>
determines how big the swap file will be. In
this example the swap file's name is <filename>/swap</filename>,
but the name and
location are, generally, arbitrary, depending only on the file
system's available space and your having write permissions in the
directory.
</para>
<para>
When you don't need the swap space any more, remove it with the
following statements:
</para>
<para><screen>
# swapoff /swap
# rm /swap
</screen></para>
<para>
Take a look also at the <citetitle>Installation HOWTO</citetitle>
and <citetitle>Installation & Getting Started</citetitle> for
detailed instructions.
</para>
<para>
If that still doesn't provide enough swap space, refer to
(``<xref linkend="more-than-128mb-of-swap"
endterm="more-than-128mb-of-swap">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.12">
<title id="remove-lilo-so-my-system-boots">
How To Remove LILO So the System Boots DOS Again?</title>
<para>
The <command>lilo</command> program (not the complete
<application>LILO</application> package), uses the command
line option <command>-u</command> to uninstall the
<application>LILO</application> boot loader. You have to supply
the device name of the device you installed
<application>LILO</application> on, for example:
</para>
<para><screen>
lilo -u /dev/hda
</screen></para>
<para>
This rewrites the original, pre-<application>LILO</application>
master boot record back to the
first hard drive, from the boot record saved in
<filename>/boot/boot.0300</filename>. If
you installed <application>LILO</application> to a partition
as a secondary boot loader, for
example, <filename>/dev/hda1</filename>, <command>lilo</command>
re-installs the original boot sector from the
save file <filename>/boot/boot.0301</filename>.
Refer to the <command>lilo</command> manual page for details.
Thanks to Villy Kruse for reminding me to update this answer.
</para>
<para>
If you have an earlier version of <application>LILO</application>, you
will have to use the DOS (MS-DOS 5.0 or later, or OS/2) <literal>FDISK
/MBR</literal> (which is not documented). This will restore a
standard <application>MS-DOS</application> Master Boot Record. If you
have <application>DR-DOS 6.0</application>, go into
<filename>FDISK.EXE</filename> in the normal way and then select the
<literal>Re-write Master Boot Record</literal> option.
</para>
<para>
If you create a boot floppy during the Windows installation process,
make sure that it contains the programs
<application>FDISK.EXE</application>, <application>FORMAT.COM</application>,
and <application>SYS.COM</application>, and use that to re-install
MS-DOS on the hard disk.
</para>
<para>
If you don't have MS-DOS or DR-DOS, you need to have the boot sector
that LILO saved when you first installed
it. You did keep that file, didn't you? It's probably called
<filename>boot.0301</filename> or some such. Type:
</para>
<para><screen>
dd if=boot.0301 of=/dev/hda bs=445 count=1
</screen></para>
<para>
(or <filename>/dev/sda</filename> if you're using a SCSI disk).
This may also wipe out your
partition table, so beware! If you're desperate, you could use
</para>
<para><screen>
dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/hda bs=512 count=1
</screen></para>
<para>
This will erase your partition table and boot sector completely: you
can then reformat the disk using your favorite software. But this will
render the contents of your disk inaccessible&mdash;you'll lose it all
unless you're an expert.
</para>
<para>
Note that the <application>DOS</application> MBR boots
whichever (single!) partition is flagged
as ``active.'' You may need to use <command>fdisk</command>
to set and clear the active
flags on partitions appropriately.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.13">
<title id="fdformat-except-as-root">
Why Does <command>fdformat</command> Require Superuser Privileges?</title>
<para>
The system call to format a floppy can only be done as root,
regardless of the permissions of <filename>/dev/fd0*</filename>.
If you want any user to be
able to format a floppy, try getting the <command>fdformat2</command>
program. This works
around the problems by being setuid to root.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.14">
<title id="partitions-checked-each-reboot.">
The System Checks the Ext2fs Partitions Each Reboot.</title>
<para>
Refer to (``<xref linkend="ext2-fs-warning-mounting"
endterm="ext2-fs-warning-mounting">)
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.15">
<title id="root-file-system-read-only">
Root File System Is Read-Only.</title>
<para>
Remount it. If <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> is correct,
you can simply type:
</para>
<para><screen>
mount -n -o remount /
</screen></para>
<para>
If <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> is wrong, you must give
the device name and possibly the
type, too: e.g.
</para>
<para><screen>
mount -n -o remount -t ext2 /dev/hda2 /
</screen></para>
<para>
To understand how you got into this state, see,
(``<xref linkend="ext2-fs-warning-mounting"
endterm="ext2-fs-warning-mounting">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.16">
<title id="huge-proc-kcore">
What Is <filename>/proc/kcore</filename>?</title>
<para>
None of the files in <filename>/proc</filename> are really
there&mdash;they're all, ``pretend,''
files made up by the kernel, to give you information about the system
and don't take up any hard disk space.
</para>
<para>
<filename>/proc/kcore</filename> is like an
``alias'' for the memory in your computer. Its
size is the same as the amount of RAM you have, and if you read it as
a file, the kernel does memory reads.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.17">
<title id="AHA1542C-doesnt-work">
The AHA1542C Doesn't Work with Linux.</title>
<para>
The option to allow disks with more than 1024 cylinders, which the
AHA1542C card can recognize, is only required as a workaround for a
PC-compatible BIOS misfeature and should be turned `off' under Linux.
For older Linux kernels you need to turn off most of the `advanced BIOS'
options&mdash;all but the one about scanning the bus for bootable devices.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="4.18">
<title id="find-the-journalling-file-system">
Where Is the Journalling File System on the Net?</title>
<para>
The journalling file system, named <application>Reiserfs</application>
has just been released
from testing. It is said to make Linux even faster than Linux with the
<application>Ext2</application> file system installed.
Complete information is available at
<ulink url="http://devlinux.org/namesys/">
<literal>http://devlinux.org/namesys/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 label="5">
<title>Porting, Compiling and Obtaining Programs</title>
<sect2 label="5.1">
<title id="how-do-i-compile-programs">How To Compile Programs.</title>
<para>
Most Linux software is written in C and compiled with the GNU C
compiler. GCC is a part of every Linux distribution. The latest
compiler version, documentation, and patches are on
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Programs that are written in C++ must be compiled with the GNU G++
compiler, which is also included in Linux distributions and available
from the same place as GCC.
</para>
<para>
To build version 2.0.x kernels, you will need GCC version 2.7.2.x,
approximately. Trying to build an early Linux kernel with a different
compiler, like GCC 2.8.x, EGCS, or PGCC, may cause problems because of
GCC related code dependencies. Kernel versions 2.3 and 2.4 should
compile correctly with more recent compilers.
</para>
<para>
Information on the EGCS compiler is at
<ulink url="http://www.gnu.org/software/gcc/gcc.html">
<literal>http://www.gnu.org/software/gcc/gcc.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Note that at this time, the kernel developers are not answering bug
requests for earlier kernels, but instead are concentrating on
developing 2.4.x version kernels and maintaining 2.2.x version
kernels.
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;J.H.M. Dassen, Axel Boldt&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.2">
<title id="install-gnu-software">How To Install GNU Software.</title>
<para>
On a correctly configured system, installing a GNU software package
requires four steps:
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para>
With the <filename>source.tar.gz</filename> archive in the
<filename>/usr/src/</filename> directory, or
wherever you maintain your source files, untar and decompress the
package with the command:
</para>
<para><screen>
tar zxvf package-name.tar.gz
</screen></para>
</listitem>
<listitem><para>
Run the <command>./configure</command> script in the untarred source archive's
top-level directory with whatever command line arguments you need.
The options that configure recognizes are usually contained in a
file called <filename>INSTALL</filename> or <filename>README</filename>.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Run <command>make</command>.
This will build the source code into an executable
program (or programs) and may take a few minutes or a few hours,
depending on the speed of the computer and the size of the
package.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Run <command>make install</command>. This will install the
compiled binaries,
configuration files, and any libraries in the appropriate
directories.
</para></listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.3">
<title id="where-do-i-get-java">Where To Get Java.</title>
<para>
The Sun Microsystems Java runtime environments and
developer's kits are at <ulink url="http://java.sun.com/java/">
<literal>http://java.sun.com/java/</literal>.
</ulink>
</para>
<para>
You can also get the source code, which is licensed by Sun Microsystems.
</para>
<para>
The home page of IBM's Jikes Java compiler is
<ulink url="http://www10.software.ibm.com/developerworks/opensource/jikes">
<literal>http://www10.software.ibm.com/developerworks/opensource/jikes
</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
There is a version of Sun's HotJava browser for Linux
at: <ulink url="http://www.java.sun.com/products/hotjava/">
<literal>http://www.java.sun.com/products/hotjava/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Kaffee, a free Java clone, is available from: <ulink
url="http://www.kaffe.org/"><literal>http://www.kaffe.org/</literal>.
</ulink>
</para>
<para>
There is a resource page of free and commercial Java packages
at: <ulink url="http://www.blackdown.org/java-linux.html">
<literal>http://www.blackdown.org/java-linux.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Netscape <application>Communicator</application> comes with its own
version of the <application>Java Runtime Environment</application>, so
if you need Java only to view Web graphics, you may already have the
runtime version of the Java Virtual Machine and libraries that you
need installed on your system. You can download
Communicator from
<ulink url="http://www.netscape.com/">
<literal>http://www.netscape.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.4">
<title id="port-xxx-to-linux">
How To Port <emphasis>XXX</emphasis> to Linux.</title>
<para>
In general, *nix programs need very little porting. Simply follow the
installation instructions. If you don't know&mdash;and don't know how to
find out&mdash;the answers to some of the questions asked during the
installation procedure, you can guess, but this tends to produce buggy
programs. In this case, you're probably better off asking someone else
to do the port.
If you have a BSD-ish program, you should try using
<command>-I/usr/include/bsd</command>
and <command>-lbsd</command> on the appropriate parts
of the compilation lines.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.5">
<title id="ld-so-and-where-do-i-get-it">
What Is <application>ld.so</application> and How To Get It?</title>
<para>
<application>ld.so</application> is the dynamic library loader.
Each binary using shared
libraries used to have about 3K of start-up code to find and load the
shared libraries. Now that code has been put in a special shared
library, <filename>/lib/ld.so</filename>, where all binaries
can look for it, so that it
wastes less disk space, and can be upgraded more easily.
<literal>ld.so</literal> can be obtained from
<ulink url="http://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/packages/GCC/">
<literal>http://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/packages/GCC/</literal></ulink>
and mirror sites. The latest version at the time of writing is
<filename>ld.so.1.9.5.tar.gz</filename>.
<filename>/lib/ld-linux.so.1</filename> is the same thing for
ELF ("What's all this
about ELF? ") and comes in the same package as the
<filename>a.out</filename> loader.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.6">
<title id="upgrade-libraries-withough-trashing">
How To Upgrade the Libraries without Trashing the System.</title>
<warning><para>
Note: You should always have a rescue disk set ready when you perform
this procedure, in the likely event that something goes wrong!
</para></warning>
<para>
This procedure is especially difficult if you're upgrading very old
libraries like <application>libc4</application>. But you should be
able to keep <application>libc4</application> on the same
system with <application>libc5</application> libraries for the
programs that still need them. The
same holds true for upgrading from <application>libc5</application> to
the newer-yet <application>glibc2</application> libraries.
</para>
<para>
The problem with upgrading dynamic libraries is that, the moment you
remove the old libraries, the utilities that you need to upgrade to
the new version of the libraries don't work. There are ways around
around this. One is to temporarily place a spare copy of the run time
libraries, which are in <filename>/lib/</filename>, in
<filename>/usr/lib/</filename>, or <filename>/usr/local/lib/</filename>,
or another directory that is listed in the
<filename>/etc/ld.so.conf</filename> file.
</para>
<para>
For example, when upgrading <application>libc5</application> libraries,
the files in <filename>/lib/</filename> might
look something like:
</para>
<para><screen>
libc.so.5
libc.so.5.4.33
libm.so.5
libm.so.5.0.9
</screen></para>
<para>
These are the C libraries and the math libraries. Copy them to another
directory that is listed in <filename>/etc/ld.so.conf</filename>,
like <filename>/usr/lib/</filename>:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ cp -df /lib/libc.so.5* /usr/lib/
$ cp -df /lib/libm.so.5* /usr/lib/
$ ldconfig
</screen></para>
<para>
Be sure to run <command>ldconfig</command>
to upgrade the library configuration.
</para>
<para>
The files <filename>libc.so.5</filename> and <filename>libm.so.5</filename>
are symbolic links to the actual
library files. When you upgrade, the new links will not be created if
the old links are still there, unless you use the <command>-f</command>
flag with <command>cp</command>. The
<command>-d</command> flag to <command>cp</command> will copy the
symbolic link itself, and not the file it points to.
</para>
<para>
If you need to overwrite the link to the library directly, use the
<command>-f</command> flag with <command>ln</command>.
</para>
<para>
For example, to copy new libraries over the old ones, try this. Make a
symbolic link to the new libraries first, then copy both the libraries
and the links to <filename>/lib/</filename>, with the following commands.
</para>
<para><screen>
$ ln -sf ./libm.so.5.0.48 libm.so.5
$ ln -sf ./libc.so.5.0.48 libc.so.5
$ cp -df libm.so.5* /lib
$ cp -df libc.so.5* /lib
</screen></para>
<para>
Again, remember to run <command>ldconfig</command> after you copy
the libraries.
</para>
<para>
If you are satisfied that everything is working correctly, you can
remove the temporary copies of the old libraries from
<filename>/usr/lib/</filename> or wherever you copied them.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.7">
<title id="code-or-compiler-for-486-on-386">
How To Use Code or a Compiler Compiled for a 486 on a 386.</title>
<para>
Yes, unless it's the kernel.
</para>
<para>
The <command>-m486</command> option to <application>GCC</application>,
which is used to compile binaries for x486
machines, merely changes certain optimizations. This makes for
slightly larger binaries that run somewhat faster on a 486. They still
work fine on a 386, though, with a small performance hit.
</para>
<para>
However, from version 1.3.35 the kernel uses 486 or Pentium-specific
instructions if configured for a 486 or Pentium, thus making it
unusable on a 386.
</para>
<para>
<application>GCC</application> can be configured for a 386 or
486; the only difference is that
configuring it for a 386 makes <command>-m386</command> the default
and configuring for a
486 makes <command>-m486</command> the default. In either case,
these can be overridden
on a per-compilation basis or by editing
<filename>/usr/lib/gcc-lib/i*-linux/</filename>
<emphasis>n.n.n</emphasis><filename>/specs</filename>.
</para>
<para>
There is an alpha version of <application>GCC</application> that knows
how to do optimization well for the 586, but it is quite unreliable,
especially at high optimization settings. The Pentium GCC can be found
on <ulink url="ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/ALPHA/pentium-gcc/">
<literal>ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/ALPHA/pentium-gcc/</literal>
</ulink>. The ordinary 486 GCC supposedly produces better code for
the Pentium using the <command>-m386</command>, or at least slightly
smaller.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.8">
<title id="what-does-gcc-o6-do">
What Does ``<literal>gcc -O6</literal>'' Do?</title>
<para>
Currently, the same as <command>-O2</command>
(<application>GCC</application> 2.5) or <command>-O3</command>
(<application>GCC</application> 2.6, 2.7). Any number greater than
that does the same thing. The <filename>Makefiles</filename> of newer
kernels use <command>-O2</command>, and you should probably do the
same.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.9">
<title id="linux-h-and-asm-h">
Where Are <filename>linux/*.h</filename> and
<filename>asm/*.h</filename>?</title>
<para>
The files <filename>/usr/include/linux/</filename> and
<filename>/usr/include/asm/</filename> are often soft
links to the directories where the kernel headers are. They are
usually under <filename>/usr/src/kernel*/</filename>.
</para>
<para>
If you don't have the kernel sources, download them. Refer to the answer:
(``<xref linkend="upgrade-recompile-kernel"
endterm="upgrade-recompile-kernel">'')
</para>
<para>
Then, use <command>rm</command> to remove any garbage, and
<command>ln</command> to create the links:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ rm -rf /usr/include/linux /usr/include/asm
$ ln -sf /usr/src/linux/include/linux /usr/include/linux
$ ln -sf /usr/src/linux/include/asm-&lt;architecture&gt; /usr/include/asm
</screen></para>
<para>
The assembly language files reside in architecture-specific
directories, so you need to link
<literal>/usr/src/include/asm</literal> to
<literal>/usr/src/linux/include/asm-i386</literal>
on PC compatible systems, to
<literal>/usr/src/linux/include/asm-sparc</literal> on Sun Sparc
systems, to <literal>/usr/src/linux/include/asm-ppc</literal>
on PPC systems, and so on.
</para>
<para>
You'll also find that you may need to do `make config' as in a
newly-unpacked kernel source tree, to create
<filename>linux/autoconf.h</filename>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.10">
<title id="errors-when-i-try-to-compile">
What To Do about Errors Trying to Compile the Kernel.</title>
<para>
See the previous question regarding the header files.
</para>
<para>
Remember that when you apply a patch to the kernel, you must use the
``<literal>-p0</literal>'' or ``<literal>-p1</literal>'' option: otherwise,
the patch may be misapplied. See the patch manual page for details.
</para>
<para>
``<literal>ld: unrecognized option `-qmagic'</literal>'' means that
you should get a newer linker, from
<ulink url="ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/packages/GCC/">
<literal>ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/packages/GCC/</literal></ulink>,
in the file <filename>binutils-2.8.1.0.1.bin.tar.gz</filename>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.11">
<title id="make-shared-library">
How To Make a Shared Library.</title>
<para>
For <acronym>ELF</acronym>,
</para>
<para><screen>
$ gcc -fPIC -c *.c
$ gcc -shared -Wl,-soname,libfoo.so.1 -o libfoo.so.1.0 *.o
</screen></para>
<para>
For <filename>a.out</filename>, get
<filename>tools-</filename><emphasis>n.nn</emphasis><filename>.tar.gz</filename>
from
<ulink url="tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/packages/GCC/src/">
<literal>tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/packages/GCC/src/</literal></ulink>.
It comes with documentation that will tell you what to do. Note that
<filename>a.out</filename> shared libraries are a very tricky
business. Consider upgrading your libraries to <acronym>ELF</acronym>
shared libraries. See the <citetitle>ELF HOWTO</citetitle>, at
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/</literal></ulink>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.12">
<title id="executables-are-very-large">
Programs Are Very Large.</title>
<para>
With an <acronym>ELF</acronym> compiler
(``<xref linkend="about-elf-glibc"
endterm="about-elf-glibc">''), the most
common cause of large executables is the lack of an appropriate .so
library link for one of the libraries you're using. There should be a
link like <filename>libc.so</filename> for every library like
<filename>libc.so.5.2.18</filename>.
</para>
<para>
With an <filename>a.out</filename> compiler the most common cause of
large executables is
the <command>-g</command> linker (compiler) flag. This produces
(as well as debugging
information in the output file) a program which is statically
linked&mdash;one which includes a copy of the C library instead of a
dynamically linked copy.
</para>
<para>
Other things worth investigating are <command>-O</command> and
<command>-O2</command>, which enable
optimization (check the GCC documentation), and -s (or the strip
command) which strip the symbol information from the resulting binary
(making debugging totally impossible).
</para>
<para>
You may wish to use -N on very small executables (less than 8K with
the -N), but you shouldn't do this unless you understand its
performance implications, and definitely never with daemons.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.13">
<title id="threads-or-lightweight-processes">
Does Linux Support Threads or Lightweight Processes?</title>
<para>
As well as the Unix multiprocessing model involving heavyweight
processes, which is of course part of the standard Linux kernel, there
are several implementations of lightweight processes or threads.
Recent kernels implement a thread model, kthreads. In addition, there
are the following packages available for Linux.
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para>
GNU glibc2 for Linux has optional support for threads. The archive
is available from the same place as glibc2,
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/</literal></ulink>
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
In
<ulink url="sipb.mit.edu:/pub/pthread/">
<literal>sipb.mit.edu:/pub/pthread/</literal></ulink>
or
<ulink url="ftp.ibp.fr:/pub/unix/threads/pthreads">
<literal>ftp.ibp.fr:/pub/unix/threads/pthreads</literal></ulink>.
Documentation isn't in the
package, but is available on the World Wide Web at
<ulink url="http://www.mit.edu:8001/people/proven/home_page.html">
<literal>http://www.mit.edu:8001/people/proven/home_page.html</literal>
</ulink>. Newer Linux
libc's contain the pthreads source. The GNU Ada compiler on
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/devel/lang/ada/gnat-3.01-linux+elf.tar.gz">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/devel/lang/ada/gnat-3.01-linux+elf.tar.gz</literal></ulink>
contains
binaries made from that source code.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
In
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.cs.washington.edu:/pub/qt-001.tar.Z">
<literal>ftp://ftp.cs.washington.edu:/pub/qt-001.tar.Z</literal></ulink>
is QuickThreads. More information can be found in the technical
report, available on the same site is <filename>
/tr/1993/05/UW-CSE-93-05-06.PS.Z.</filename></para>
</listitem>
<listitem><para>
In gummo.doc.ic.ac.uk/rex/ is lwp, a very minimal implementation.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para> In
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.cs.fsu.edu:/pub/PART/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.cs.fsu.edu:/pub/PART/</literal></ulink>, an
Ada implementation. This is useful mainly because it has a lot of
Postscript papers that you'll find useful in learning more about
threads. This is not directly usable under Linux. </para></listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>
Please contact the authors of the packages in question for details.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.14">
<title id="lint-for-linux">
Where To Find <literal>lint</literal> for Linux.</title>
<para>
Roughly equivalent functionality is built into GCC. Use the
<literal>-Wall</literal>
option to turn on most of the useful extra warnings. See the GCC
manual for more details (type
<keycombo><keycap>F1</keycap>
<keycap>i</keycap></keycombo>
in Emacs and select the entry for GCC).
</para>
<para>
There is a freely available program called
<literal>lclint</literal> that does much the
same thing as traditional lint. The announcement and source code are
available at on
<ulink url="ftp://larch.lcs.mit.edu/pub/Larch/lclint/">
<literal>ftp://larch.lcs.mit.edu/pub/Larch/lclint/</literal></ulink>;
on the World Wide Web, look at
<ulink url="http://lclint.cs.virginia.edu/">
<literal>http://lclint.cs.virginia.edu/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.15">
<title id="kermit-for-linux">
Where To Find Kermit for Linux.</title>
<para>
Kermit is distributed under a non-GPL copyright that makes its terms
of distribution somewhat different. The sources and some binaries are
available on
<ulink url="ftp://kermit.columbia.edu">
<literal>ftp://kermit.columbia.edu</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The WWW Home Page of the Columbia University Kermit project is
<ulink url="http://www.columbia.edu/kermit/">
<literal>http://www.columbia.edu/kermit/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.16">
<title id="linux-cable-modem.">
How To Use Linux with a Cable Modem.</title>
<para>
The www.CablemodemInfo.com and xDSL Web page at
<ulink url="http://www.cablemodeminfo.com/">
<literal>http://www.cablemodeminfo.com/</literal></ulink>
has a section devoted to Linux.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="5.17">
<title id="icq-program-under-linux">
Is There an ICQ Program That Runs under Linux?</title>
<para>
Several ICQ clients are available on metalab.unc.edu. (Refer to:
``<xref linkend="get-linux-material-by-ftp"
endterm="get-linux-material-by-ftp">'')
ICQ itself does not have a Linux
client, but there is a Java client at
<ulink url="http://www.mirabilis.com/download/">
<literal>http://www.mirabilis.com/download/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 label="6">
<title>Solutions to Common Miscellaneous Problems</title>
<sect2 label="6.1">
<title id="ppp-connection-dies-when-sending">
FTP Transfers Seem to Hang.</title>
<para>
FTP transfers that die suddenly are due, apparently, to some form of
overrunning buffer. It occurs both with Linux and Microsoft servers.
On Linux systems, The problem seems to occur most commonly with the
distribution's server software.
</para>
<para>
If you receive
<literal>ftp: connection refused</literal> errors, then the problem
is likely due to a lack of authentication. Refer to
``<xref linkend="ftp-wont-login"
endterm="ftp-wont-login">.''
</para>
<para>
One remedy is to be replacing the distribution FTP server with the
Linux port of the OpenBSD FTP server. The home page is:
<ulink url="http://www.eleves.ens.fr:8080/home/madore/programs/">
<literal>http://www.eleves.ens.fr:8080/home/madore/programs/</literal></ulink>
</para>
<para>
To install the BSD server, follow the installation instructions, and
refer to the manual pages for <filename>inetd</filename> and
<filename>inetd.conf</filename>. (If you have the newer
<filename>xinetd</filename>, see below.) Be sure to tell
<filename>inetd</filename> to run the BSD daemon alone, not as a
subprocess of, for example, <filename>tcpd</filename>. Comment
out the line that begins ``<literal>ftp</literal>'' in the
<filename>/etc/inetd.conf</filename> file and replace it with a
line similar to (if you install the new <filename>ftpd</filename>
in <filename>/usr/local/sbin/</filename>):
</para>
<para><programlisting>
# Original entry, commented out.
#ftp stream tcp nowait root /usr/sbin/tcpd /usr/sbin/in.ftpd
# Replacement entry:
ftp stream tcp nowait root /usr/local/sbin/ftpd -l
</programlisting></para>
<para>
The replacement daemon will become effective after rebooting
or sending (as root) a <literal>SIGHUP</literal> to
<literal>inetd</literal>, e.g.:
</para>
<para><screen>
# kill -HUP inetd
</screen></para>
<para>
To configure <filename>xinetd</filename>, create an entry in
<filename>/etc/xinetd.d</filename> per the instructions in the
<filename>xinetd.conf</filename> manual page. Make sure,
again, that the command-line arguments for <filename>ftpd</filename>
are correct, and that you have installed the <filename>/etc/ftpusers</filename>
and <filename>/etc/pam.d/ftp</filename> files. Then restart
<filename>xinetd</filename> with the command:
<literal>/etc/rc.d/init.d/xinetd restart</literal>. The command
should report ``OK,'' and the restart will be noted in the
system message log.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.2">
<title id="free-dumps-core.">Free Dumps Core.</title>
<para>
In Linux 1.3.57 and later, the format of <filename>/proc/meminfo</filename>
was changed in
a way that the implementation of <application>free</application>
doesn't understand.
Get the latest version, from metalab.unc.edu, in
<filename>/pub/Linux/system/Status/ps/procps-0.99.tgz</filename>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.3">
<title id="netscape-crashes">
Netscape Crashes Frequently.</title>
<para>
Netscape shouldn't crash, if it and the network are properly configured.
Some things to check:
</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para>
Make sure that the <literal>MOZILLA_HOME</literal> environment
variable is correctly set. If you installed Netscape under
<filename>/usr/local/netscape/</filename>, for example, that should be
the value of <literal>MOZILLA_HOME</literal>. Set it from the command
line (e.g, ``<literal>export
MOZILLA_HOME="/usr/local/netscape"</literal>'' under
<command>bash</command> or add it to one your personal or system
initialization files. Refer to the manual page for your shell for
details.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
If you have a brand-new version of Netscape, try a previous version,
in case the run-time libraries are slightly incompatible. For
example, if Netscape version 4.75 is installed (type
``<literal>netscape --version</literal>'' at the shell prompt), try
installing version 4.7. All versions are archived at
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.netscape.com/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.netscape.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Netscape uses its own Motif and Java Runtime Environment libraries. If
a separate version of either is installed on your system, ensure that
they aren't interfering with Netscape's libraries; e.g., by un-installing
them.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Make sure that Netscape can connect to its default name servers. The program
will appear to freeze and time out after several minutes if it can't.
This indicates a problem with the system's Internet connection; likely,
the system can't connect to other sites, either.
</para></listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.4">
<title id="ftp-wont-login">
FTP or Telnet Server Won't Allow Logins.
</title>
<para>
This applies to server daemons that respond to clients, but don't
allow logins. On new systems that have Pluggable Authentication
Modules installed, look for a file named,
``<filename>ftp</filename>,'' or ``<filename>telnet</filename>,'' in the
directory <filename>/etc/pam/</filename> or
<filename>/etc/pam.d/</filename>. If the corresponding authentication
file doesn't exist, the instructions for configuring FTP and Telnet
authentication and other PAM configuration, should be in
<literal>/usr/doc/pam-&lt;version&gt;</literal>. Refer also to the
answer for ``<xref linkend="ftp-421-error" endterm="ftp-421-error">.''
</para>
<para>
If it's an FTP server on an older system, make sure that the account
exists in <filename>/etc/passwd</filename>, especially
``<literal>anonymous</literal>.''
</para>
<para>
This type of problem may also be caused a failure to resolve the host
addresses properly, especially if using Reverse Address Resolution
Protocol (RARP). The simple answer to this is to list all relevant
host names and IP addresses in the <filename>/etc/hosts</filename>
files on each machine. ( Refer to the example
<filename>/etc/hosts</filename> and
<filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> files in: ``<xref
linkend="sendmail-pause" endterm="sendmail-pause">.'') If the network
has an internal DNS, make sure that each host can resolve network
addresses using it.
</para>
<para>
If the host machine doesn't respond to FTP or Telnet clients at all,
then the server daemon is not installed correctly, or at all. Refer
to the manual pages: <literal>inetd</literal> and
<literal>inetd.conf</literal> on older systems, or
<literal>xinetd</literal> and <literal>xinetd.conf</literal>, as well
as <literal>ftpd</literal>, and <literal>telnetd</literal>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.5">
<title id="track-of-bookmarks-netscape">
How To Keep Track of Bookmarks in Netscape?</title>
<para>
This probably applies to most other browsers, too. In the
Preferences/Navigator menu, set your home page to Netscape's
<filename>bookmarks.html</filename> file, which is located in the
<filename>.netscape</filename> (with a leading period)
subdirectory. For example, if your login name is
``<literal>smith</literal>,'' set the home page to:
</para>
<para><screen>
file://home/smith/.netscape/bookmarks.html
</screen></para>
<para>
Setting up your personal home page like this will present you with a
nicely formatted (albeit possibly long) page of bookmarks when
Netscape starts. And the file is automatically updated whenever you
add, delete, or visit a bookmarked site.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.6">
<title id="computer-has-wrong-time">
The Computer Has the Wrong Time.</title>
<para>
There are two clocks in your computer. The hardware (CMOS) clock runs
even when the computer is turned off, and is used when the system
starts up and by DOS (if you use DOS). The ordinary system time, shown
and set by <command>date</command>, is maintained by the kernel while Linux is
running.
</para>
<para>
You can display the CMOS clock time, or set either clock from the
other, with <filename>/sbin/clock</filename> (now called
<command>hwclock</command> in many
distributions). Refer to: <literal>man 8 clock</literal> or
<literal>man 8 hwclock</literal>.
</para>
<para>
There are various other programs that can correct either or both
clocks for system drift or transfer time across the network. Some of
them may already be installed on your system. Try looking for
<command>adjtimex</command>
(corrects for drift), Network Time Protocol clients like
<command>netdate</command>, <command>getdate</command>,
and <command>xntp</command>, or NTP client-server suite like
<command>chrony</command>. Refer to:
``<xref linkend="ported-compiled-written-xxx"
endterm="ported-compiled-written-xxx">.''
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.7">
<title id="setuid-scripts-dont-work.">
Setuid Scripts Don't Seem to Work.</title>
<para>
That's right. This feature has been disabled in the Linux kernel on
purpose, because setuid scripts are almost always a security hole.
<application>Sudo</application> and
<application>SuidPerl</application> can provide more
security than setuid scripts or
binaries, especially if execute permissions are limited to a certain
user ID or group ID.
</para>
<para>
If you want to know why setuid scripts are a security hole, read the
FAQ for <citetitle>comp.unix.questions</citetitle>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.8">
<title id="free-memory-keeps-shrinking">
Free Memory as Reported by <command>free</command> Keeps Shrinking.</title>
<para>
The ``<literal>free</literal>'' figure printed by
<command>free</command> doesn't include memory used as a disk buffer
cache&mdash;shown in the ``<literal>buffers</literal>'' column. If you
want to know how much memory is really free add the
``<literal>buffers</literal>'' amount to ``<literal>free</literal>.''
Newer versions of <command>free</command> print an extra line with
this info.
</para>
<para>
The disk buffer cache tends to grow soon after starting Linux up. As
you load more programs and use more files, the contents get cached. It
will stabilize after a while.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.9">
<title id="add-memory-system-slows">
When Adding More Memory, the System Slows to a Crawl.</title>
<para>
This is a common symptom of a failure to cache the additional memory.
The exact problem depends on your motherboard.
</para>
<para>
Sometimes you have to enable caching of certain regions in your BIOS
setup. Look in the CMOS setup and see if there is an option to cache
the new memory area which is currently switched off. This is
apparently most common on a '486.
</para>
<para>
Sometimes the RAM has to be in certain sockets to be cached.
</para>
<para>
Sometimes you have to set jumpers to enable caching.
</para>
<para>
Some motherboards don't cache all of the RAM if you have more RAM per
amount of cache than the hardware expects. Usually a full 256K cache
will solve this problem.
</para>
<para>
If in doubt, check the manual. If you still can't fix it because the
documentation is inadequate, you might like to post a message to
<citetitle>comp.os.linux.hardware</citetitle>
giving all of the details&mdash;make, model number,
date code, etc., so other Linux users can avoid it.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.10">
<title id="some-programs-wont-log-in">
Some Programs (E.g. <command>xdm</command>) Won't Allow Logins.</title>
<para>
You are probably using non-shadow password programs and are using
shadow passwords.
</para>
<para>
If so, you have to get or compile a shadow password version of the
programs in question. The shadow password suite can be found at
<ulink url="ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu:/pub/linux/sources/usr.bin/shadow/">
<literal>ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu:/pub/linux/sources/usr.bin/shadow/</literal>
</ulink>. This is the source code. The binaries are probably in
<filename>linux/binaries/usr.bin/</filename>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.11">
<title id="log-in-with-no-password">
Some Programs Allow Logins with No Password.</title>
<para>
You probably have the same problem as in
(``<xref linkend="some-programs-wont-log-in"
endterm="some-programs-wont-log-in">''), with an added wrinkle.
</para>
<para>
If you are using shadow passwords, you should put a letter
`<literal>x</literal>' or an asterisk in the password field of
<filename>/etc/passwd</filename> for each account, so that if a
program doesn't know about the shadow passwords it won't think it's a
passwordless account and let anyone in.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.12">
<title id="machine-runs-very-slowly-when">
The Machine Runs Very Slowly with GCC / X / ...</title>
<para>
You may have too little real memory. If you have less RAM than all the
programs you're running at once, Linux will swap to your hard disk
instead and thrash horribly. The solution in this case is to not run
so many things at once or buy more memory. You can also reclaim some
memory by compiling and using a kernel with less options configured.
See
(``<xref linkend="upgrade-recompile-kernel"
endterm="upgrade-recompile-kernel">'')
</para>
<para>
You can tell how much memory and swap you're using with the free
command, or by typing:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ cat /proc/meminfo
</screen></para>
<para>
If your kernel is configured with a RAM disk, this is probably wasted
space and will cause things to go slowly. Use LILO or rdev to tell the
kernel not to allocate a RAM disk (see the LILO documentation or type
``<literal>man rdev</literal>'').
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.13">
<title id="can-only-log-in-as-root">
System Only Allows Root Logins.</title>
<para>
You probably have some permission problems, or you have a file
<filename>/etc/nologin</filename>.
</para>
<para>
In the latter case, put ``<literal>rm -f /etc/nologin</literal>''
in your <filename>/etc/rc.local</filename> or
<filename>/etc/rc.d/*</filename> scripts.
</para>
<para>
Otherwise, check the permissions on your shell, and any file names
that appear in error messages, and also the directories that contain
these files, up to and including the root directory.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.14">
<title id="screen-is-all-full-of-weird">
The Screen Is All Full of Weird Characters Instead of Letters.</title>
<para>
You probably sent some binary data to your screen by mistake. Type
<literal>echo '\033c'</literal> to fix it.
Many Linux distributions have a command,
<command>reset</command>, that does this.
</para>
<para>
If that doesn't help, try a direct screen escape command.
</para>
<para><screen>
$ echo '<keycombo><keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>V</keycap></keycombo> <keycombo><keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>O</keycap></keycombo>'
</screen></para>
<para>
This resets the default font of a Linux console. Remember to hold down
the Control key and type the letter, instead of, for example,
<keycombo><keycap>Ctrl</keycap></keycombo>, then
<keycombo><keycap>V</keycap></keycombo>. The sequence
</para>
<para><screen>
$ echo '<keycombo><keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>V</keycap></keycombo> <keycap>Esc</keycap> <keycap>C</keycap>'
</screen></para>
<para>
causes a full screen reset. If there's data left on the shell command
line after typing a binary file, press <keycombo><keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>C</keycap></keycombo> a few times to restore
the shell command line.
</para>
<para>
Another possible command is an alias, ``<literal>sane</literal>,''
that can work with generic terminals:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ alias sane='echo -e "\\033c";tput is2; \
> stty sane line 1 rows $LINES columns $COLUMNS'
</screen></para>
<para>
The alias is enclosed with open quotes (backticks), not single quotes.
The line break is included here for clarity, and is not required.
</para>
<para>
Make sure that <literal>$LINES</literal> and <literal>$COLUMNS</literal>
are defined in the environment with a command similar to this in
<filename>~/.cshrc</filename> or <filename>~/.bashrc</filename>,
</para>
<para><screen>
$ LINES=25; export $LINES; $COLUMNS=80; export $COLUMNS
</screen></para>
<para>
using the correct numbers of <literal>$LINES</literal> and
<literal>$COLUMNS</literal> for the terminal.
</para>
<para>
Finally, the output of ``<command>stty -g</command>'' can be used to
create a shell script that will reset the terminal:
</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
Save the output of ``<command>stty -g</command>'' to a file. In
this example, the file is named ``termset.'':
</para>
<para><screen>
$ stty -g >termset
</screen></para>
<para>
The output of ``<command>stty -g</command>'' (the contents of
``<filename>termset</filename>'') will
look something like:
</para>
<para><screen>
500:5:bd:8a3b:3:1c:7f:15:4:0:1:0:11:13:1a:0:12:f:17:16:0:0:73
</screen></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Edit ``<filename>termset</filename>'' to become a shell
script; adding an interpreter and ``<command>stty</command>''
command:
</para>
<para><screen>
#!/bin/bash
stty 500:5:bd:8a3b:3:1c:7f:15:4:0:1:0:11:13:1a:0:12:f:17:16:0:0:73
</screen></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Add executable permissions to ``<command>termset</command>'' and
use as a shell script:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ chmod +x termset
$ ./termset
</screen></para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para>
&lsqb;Floyd L. Davidson, Bernhard Gabler&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.15">
<title id="screwed-up-system-and-cant-log-in">
I Screwed Up the System and Can't Log In to Fix It.</title>
<para>
Reboot from an emergency floppy or floppy pair. For example, the
Slackware boot and root disk pair in the install subdirectory of the
Slackware distribution.
</para>
<para>
There are also two, do-it-yourself rescue disk creation packages in
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/Recovery/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/recovery/</literal></ulink>.
These are better because they have your own kernel on them, so you
don't run the risk of missing devices and file systems.
</para>
<para>
Get to a shell prompt and mount your hard disk with something like
</para>
<para><screen>
$ mount -t ext2 /dev/hda1 /mnt
</screen></para>
<para>
Then your file system is available under the directory
<filename>/mnt</filename> and you
can fix the problem. Remember to unmount your hard disk before
rebooting (<command>cd</command> somewhere else
first, or it will say it's busy).
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.16">
<title id="forgot-root-password">
I Forgot the <literal>root</literal> Password.</title>
<para>
<emphasis>Note: Incorrectly editing any of the files in the
<filename>/etc/</filename> directory can severely screw up
a system. Please keep a spare copy of any files in case
you make a mistake.</emphasis>
</para>
<para>
If your Linux distribution permits, try booting into single-user mode
by typing ``<literal>single</literal>'' at the <literal>BOOT
lilo:</literal> prompt. With more recent distributions, you can boot
into single-user mode when prompted by typing ``<literal>linux
1</literal>,'' ``<literal>linux single</literal>,'' or
``<literal>init=/bin/bash</literal>.''
</para>
<para>
If the above doesn't work for you, boot from the installation
or rescue floppy, and switch to another virtual console with
<keycombo><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F1</keycap></keycombo> --
<keycombo><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F8</keycap></keycombo>,
and then mount the root file system on <literal>/mnt</literal>.
Then proceed with the steps below to determine if your system
has standard or shadow passwords, and how to remove the
password.
</para>
<para>
Using your favorite text editor, edit the root entry of
the <filename>/etc/passwd</filename> file to remove
the password, which is located between the first and second
colons. <emphasis>Do this only if the password field does not
contain an ``<literal>x</literal>,'' in which case see
below.</emphasis>
</para>
<para>
<screen>
root:Yhgew13xs:0:0: ...
</screen>
</para>
<para>
Change that to:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
root::0:0: ...
</screen>
</para>
<para>
If the password field contains an ``<literal>x</literal>,''
then you must remove the password from the <filename>/etc/shadow</filename>
file, which is in a similar format. Refer to the manual pages:
``<literal>man passwd</literal>,'' and ``<literal>man 5 shadow</literal>.''
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Paul Colquhuon, Robert Kiesling, Tom Plunket&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.17">
<title id="a-security-hole-in-rm">
There's a Huge Security Hole in <command>rm</command>!</title>
<para>
No there isn't. You are obviously new to unices and need to read a
good book to find out how things work. Clue: the ability to delete
files depends on permission to write in that directory.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.18">
<title id="lpr-andor-lpd-dont-work"><command>
lpr</command> and/or <command>lpd</command> Don't Work.</title>
<para>
First make sure that your <filename>/dev/lp*</filename> port is
correctly configured. Its
IRQ (if any) and port address need to match the settings on the
printer card. You should be able to dump a file directly to the
printer:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ cat the_file >/dev/lp1
</screen></para>
<para>
If <command>lpr</command> gives you a message like
<literal>myname@host: host not found</literal>" it may mean that the
TCP/IP loopback interface, <literal>lo</literal>, isn't working
properly. Loopback support is compiled into most distribution kernels.
Check that the interface is configured with the ifconfig command. By
Internet convention, the network number is 127.0.0.0, and the local
host address is 127.0.0.1. If everything is configured correctly, you
should be able to telnet to your own machine and get a login prompt.
</para>
<para>
Make sure that <filename>/etc/hosts.lpd</filename> contains the
machine's host name.
</para>
<para>
If your machine has a network-aware <command>lpd</command>, like the
one that comes with LPRng, make sure that
<filename>/etc/lpd.perms</filename> is configured correctly.
Also look at the <citetitle>Printing HOWTO</citetitle>.
"Where can I get the HOWTO's and other documentation? ".
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.19">
<title id="timestamps-on-files-are-incorrectly">
Timestamps on Files on MS-DOS Partitions Are Set Incorrectly</title>
<para>
There is a bug in the program <command>clock</command>
(often found in <filename>/sbin</filename>). It
miscounts a time zone offset, confusing seconds with minutes or
something like that. Get a recent version.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.20">
<title id="lilo-boot-kernel-image">
How To Get LILO to Boot the Kernel Image.</title>
<para>
From kernel versions 1.1.80 on, the compressed kernel image, which is
what LILO needs to find, is in <filename>arch/i386/boot/zImage</filename>, or
<filename>arch/i386/boot/bzImage</filename> when it is built,
and is normally stored in the
<filename>/boot/</filename> directory. The
<filename>/etc/lilo.conf</filename> file should refer to the
<filename>vmlinuz</filename>
symbolic link, not the actual kernel image.
</para>
<para>
This was changed to make it easier to build kernel versions for
several different processors from one source tree.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.21">
<title>How To Make Sure the System Boots after Re-Installing
the Operating System.
</title>
<para>
This should work whether you're re-installing Linux or some other,
commercial, operating system:
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para>
Insert a blank, formatted floppy in drive A:
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Save a copy of the boot hard drive's Master Boot Record to the
floppy, by executing the command:
</para>
<para><screen>
#dd if=/dev/hda of=/dev/fd0 count=1
</screen></para>
<para>
<literal>dd</literal> is a standard program on Linux systems. A
MS-Windows compatible version is available from
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.gnu.org/"><literal>ftp://ftp.gnu.org/</literal>
</ulink>, as well as many MS software archives.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Test that the floppy boots the system by rebooting with the floppy
in the A: drive.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Then you should be able to install the other operating system (on
a different hard drive and/or partition, if you don't want to
uninstall Linux).
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
After installation, boot Linux again from the floppy, and re-install
the MBR with the command: <filename>/sbin/lilo</filename>.
</para></listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>&lsqb;Jacques Guy&rsqb;</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.22">
<title id="upgraded-kernel-pcmcia-doesnt-work">
The PCMCIA Card Doesn't Work after Upgrading the Kernel.</title>
<para>
The PCMCIA Card Services modules, which are located in
<filename>/lib/modules/</filename><emphasis>version</emphasis><filename>/pcmcia</filename>,
where <emphasis>version</emphasis> is the version number of the
kernel, use configuration information that is specific to that kernel
image only. The PCMCIA modules on your system will not work with a
different kernel image. You need to upgrade the PCMCIA card modules
when you upgrade the kernel.
</para>
<para>
When upgrading from older kernels, make sure that you have the most recent
version of the run-time libraries, the modutils package, and so on.
Refer to the file <filename>Documentation/Changes</filename>
in the kernel source tree for details.
</para>
<para>
Important: If you use the PCMCIA Card Services, do not enable the
<literal>Network device support/Pocket and portable adapters</literal>
option of the kernel configuration menu, as this conflicts with the
modules in Card Services.
</para>
<para>
Knowing the PCMCIA module dependencies of the old kernel is useful.
You need to keep track of them. For example, if your PCMCIA card
depends on the serial port character device being installed as a
module for the old kernel, then you need to ensure that the serial
module is available for the new kernel and PCMCIA modules as well.
</para>
<para>
The procedure described here is somewhat kludgey, but it is much easier
than re-calculating module dependencies from scratch, and making sure
the upgrade modules get loaded so that both the non-PCMCIA and PCMCIA
are happy. Recent kernel releases contain a myriad of module options,
too many to keep track of easily. These steps use the existing module
dependencies as much as possible, instead of requiring you to
calculate new ones.
</para>
<para>
However, this procedure does not take into account instances where
module dependencies are incompatible from one kernel version to
another. In these cases, you'll need to load the modules yourself with
insmod, or adjust the module dependencies in the
<filename>/etc/conf.modules</filename> file. The
<filename>Documentation/modules.txt</filename> file in the kernel
source tree contains a good description of how to use the kernel
loadable modules and the module utilities like
<command>insmod</command>, <command>modprobe</command>, and
<command>depmod</command>. <filename>Modules.txt</filename> also
contains a recommended procedure for determining which features to
include in a resident kernel, and which to build as modules.
</para>
<para>
Essentially, you need to follow these steps when you install a new
kernel.
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para> Before building the new kernel, make a record with
the <command>lsmod</command> command of the module dependencies that
your system currently uses. For example, part of the
<command>lsmod</command> output might look like this:
</para>
<para><screen>
Module Pages Used by
memory_cs 2 0
ds 2 [memory_cs] 3
i82365 4 2
pcmcia_core 8 [memory_cs ds i82365] 3
sg 1 0
bsd_comp 1 0
ppp 5 [bsd_comp] 0
slhc 2 [ppp] 0
serial 8 0
psaux 1 0
lp 2 0
</screen></para>
<para>
This tells you for example that the <filename>memory_cs</filename>
module needs the ds
and <filename>pcmcia_core</filename> modules loaded first.
What it doesn't say is that,
in order to avoid recalculating the module dependencies, you may
also need to have the <filename>serial</filename>,
<filename>lp</filename>, <filename>psaux</filename>, and other standard
modules available to prevent errors when installing the pcmcia
routines at boot time with <command>insmod</command>.
A glance at the <filename>/etc/modules</filename> file will tell
you what modules the system currently loads, and in what order.
Save a copy of this file for future reference, until you have
successfully installed the new kernel's modules. Also save the
<command>lsmod</command>
output to a file, for example, with the command:
<command>lsmod >lsmod.old-kernel.output</command>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Build the new kernel, and install the boot image, either
<filename>zImage</filename> or
<filename>bzImage</filename>, to a floppy diskette. To do this, change to the
<filename>arch/i386/boot</filename> directory (substitute the
correct architecture
directory if you don't have an Intel machine), and, with a floppy
in the diskette drive, execute the command:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ dd if=bzImage of=/dev/fd0 bs=512
</screen></para>
<para>
if you built the kernel with the <command>make bzImage</command>
command, and if
your floppy drive is <filename>/dev/fd0</filename>.
This results in a bootable kernel
image being written to the floppy, and allows you to try out the
new kernel without replacing the existing one that LILO boots on
the hard drive.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Boot the new kernel from the floppy to make sure that it works.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
With the system running the new kernel, compile and install a current
version of the PCMCIA Card Services package, available from
metalab.unc.edu as well as other Linux archives. Before installing the
Card Services utilities, change the names of
<filename>/sbin/cardmgr</filename> and
<filename>/sbin/cardctl</filename> to
<filename>/sbin/cardmgr.old</filename> and
<filename>/sbin/cardctl.old</filename>. The old versions of these
utilities are not compatible with the replacement utilities that Card
Services installs. In case something goes awry with the installation,
the old utilities won't be overwritten, and you can revert to the
older versions if necessary. When configuring Card Services with the
``<literal>make config</literal>'' command, make sure that the build
scripts know where to locate the kernel configuration, either by using
information from the running kernel, or telling the build process
where the source tree of the new kernel is. The ``<literal>make
config</literal>'' step should complete without errors. Installing the
modules from the Card Services package places them in the directory
<filename>/lib/modules/</filename><emphasis>version</emphasis><filename>/pcmcia</filename>,
where <emphasis>version</emphasis> is the version number of the new
kernel.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Reboot the system, and note which, if any, of the PCMCIA devices
work. Also make sure that the non-PCMCIA hardware devices are
working. It's likely that some or all of them won't work. Use
<command>lsmod</command> to determine which modules the kernel
loaded at boot time,
and compare it with the module listing that the old kernel loaded,
which you saved from the first step of the procedure. (If you
didn't save a listing of the <command>lsmod</command> output,
go back and reboot the old kernel, and make the listing now.)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
When all modules are properly loaded, you can replace the old
kernel image on the hard drive. This will most likely be the file
pointed to by the <filename>/vmlinuz</filename> symlink.
Remember to update the boot
sector by running the <command>lilo</command> command after
installing the new kernel image on the hard drive.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>
Also look at the questions, How do I upgrade/recompile my kernel?
and Modprobe can't locate module, "XXX," and similar messages.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.23">
<title id="ls-colors">
How To Remove (or Change) the Colors in the
<application>ls</application> Display.
</title>
<para>
The shell command, ``<literal>unalias ls</literal>,'' should
completely unset the configuration that some distributions provide as
standard. To change the colors, refer to the
<application>ls</application> man page (``<literal>man ls</literal>'').
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="6.24">
<title id="programs-in-cwd">
Why Won't a Program Work in the Current Directory?
</title>
<para>
Because the current directory (i.e., ``<literal>.</literal>'') is not
in the search path, for security reasons, as well as to insure that
the correct program versions are used. If an intruder is able to
write a file to a world-writable directory, like
<filename>/tmp</filename>, presumably he or she would be able to
execute it if the directory were in the search path. The solution to
this is to include the directory in the command; e.g.,
``<literal>./myprog</literal>,'' instead of
``<literal>myprog</literal>.'' Or add the current directory to your
<literal>PATH</literal> environment variable; e.g.,
``<literal>export PATH=".:"$PATH</literal>'' using
<application>bash</application>, although this is discouraged for the
reasons mentioned above.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 label="7">
<title>How To Do This or Find Out That... </title>
<sect2 label="7.1">
<title id="my-notebook-runs-linux">
How To Find Out If a Notebook Runs Linux.</title>
<para>
There's no fixed answer to this question, because notebook hardware is
constantly updated, and getting the X display, sound, PCMCIA, modem,
and so forth, working, can take a good deal of effort.
</para>
<para>
Most notebooks currently on the market, for example, use
``Winmodems,'' which often do not work with Linux because of their
proprietary hardware interfaces. Even notebooks which are certified as
``Linux compatible,'' may not be completely compatible.
</para>
<para>
Information about installing Winmodems in general is contained
in the <citetitle>Winmodems-and-Linux HOWTO</citetitle>. (Refer
to ``<xref linkend="howtos-and-other-documentation"
endterm="howtos-and-other-documentation">'')
</para>
<para>
You can find the most current information, or ask other users about
their notebook experiences, on the linux-laptop mailing list, which is
hosted by the <literal>vger.redhat.com</literal> server. (Refer to
``<xref linkend="what-mailing-lists-are-there"
endterm="what-mailing-lists-are-there">'')
</para>
<para>
A mailing list for Linux on IBM Thinkpads has its home page at
<ulink url="http://www.topica.com/lists/linux-thinkpad/">
<literal>http://www.topica.com/lists/linux-thinkpad/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Another Thinkpad mailing list is hosted by
<ulink url="http://www.bm-soft.com/">
<literal>http://www.bm-soft.com/</literal></ulink>.
Send email with the word ``<literal>help</literal>'' in the
body of the message to
<ulink url="mailto:majordomo@www.bm-soft.com">
<literal>majordomo@www.bm-soft.com</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
There is a Web page about Linux on IBM Thinkpads at
<ulink url="http://peipa.essex.ac.uk/tp-linux/">
<literal>http://peipa.essex.ac.uk/tp-linux/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The Linux Laptop home page is at
<ulink url="http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/kharker/linux-laptop/">
<literal>http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/kharker/linux-laptop/</literal>
</ulink>.
</para>
<para>
For information about interfacing peripherals like Zip and CD-ROM
drives through parallel ports, refer to the Linux Parallel Port Home
Page, at
<ulink url="http://www.torque.net/linux-pp.html">
<literal>http://www.torque.net/linux-pp.html</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
If you need the latest version of the PCMCIA Card Services package, it
is (or was) located at
<ulink url="ftp://cb-iris.stanford.edu/pub/pcmcia/">
<literal>ftp://cb-iris.stanford.edu/pub/pcmcia/</literal></ulink>,
but that host no longer seems to be available. Recent distributions
are on
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/kernel/pcmcia/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/kernel/pcmcia/</literal></ulink>.
You will also need to have the kernel source code installed as
well. Be sure to read the <citetitle>PCMCIA-HOWTO</citetitle>, which
is included in the distribution.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.2">
<title id="install-linux-using-ftp">
Installing Linux Using FTP.</title>
<para>
Most distributions are too large and complex to make FTP installation
practical. Installing a basic Linux system that doesn't have a GUI or
major applications is possible with FTP, however. The main
non-commercial distribution in use is Debian GNU/Linux, and this
answer describes an installation of a basic Debian system, to which
you can add other Linux applications and commercial software as
necessary.
</para>
<para>
This answer describes installation on IBM-compatible machines with an
Intel x86 or Pentium processor. You will need a machine with at least
a 80386 processor, 8 Mb of memory, and about 100 Mb of disk space. More
memory and a larger disk is necessary however, for practical everyday use.
</para>
<para>
For other hardware, substitute ``-arm,'' ``-ppc,'' ``-m68k,''
or other abbreviation in directory names for ``-i386.''
</para>
<para>
For detailed and hardware-specific information
refer to: <ulink url="http://www.debian.org/releases/stable/">
<literal>http://www.debian.org/releases/stable/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para>
Connect using anonymous FTP to <literal>ftp.debian.org</literal>
and <command>cd</command> to the
<filename>pub/debian/dists/stable/main/disks-i386/current/</filename>
subdirectory.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Retrieve the binary image files for the rescue disk, and the drivers
disk. Depending on the floppy drive installed on your machine, retrieve
either the diskette images with "1200" in the names if you have a 1.2 Mb,
5.25-in. floppy, or the disks with "1440" in the name if the
computer has a 3.25-in., 1.44 Mb floppy. Then retrieve the base
system diskettes. Note that there are 7 base system images in the
1.44-Mb set (which have a ``14'' in their names) , and 9 in the
1.2-Mb set of images (which have a ``12'' in their names). You will
use these to create the basic installation diskettes. If you have
a Linux machine, you can use <command>dd</command>
to write the images to the
diskettes. If you are creating the installation diskettes on a
MS-DOS machine, also download the
<filename>RAWRITE.EXE</filename> MS-DOS utility,
which will copy the raw binary images to floppy disks. Also
download the <filename>install.en.txt</filename>
document, which contains the detailed installation instructions.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Create the installation disk set on floppies using either
<command>dd</command>
under Linux (e.g.:
``<literal>dd if=resc1440.bin of=/dev/fd0</literal>''), or
the <filename>RAWRITE.EXE</filename>
utility under MS-DOS. Be sure to label each
installation diskette.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Insert the rescue diskette into the floppy drive and reboot the
computer. If all goes well, the Linux kernel will boot, and you
will be able start the installation program by pressing
<keycap>Enter</keycap> at the <literal>boot:</literal> prompt.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Follow the on-screen instructions for partitioning the hard disk,
installing device drivers, the basic system software, and the
Linux kernel. If the machine is connected to a local network,
enter the network information when the system asks for it.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
To install additional software over the Internet, be sure that you
have installed the <literal>ppp</literal>
module during the installation process, and
run (as root) the <filename>/usr/sbin/pppconfig</filename>
utility. You will need to
provide your user name with your ISP, your password, the ISP's
dial-up phone number, the address(es) of the ISP's Domain Name
Service, and the serial port that your modem is connected to,
<filename>/dev/ttyS0</filename>&ndash;<filename>/dev/ttyS3</filename>.
Be sure also to specify the
<literal>defaultroute</literal>
option to the PPP system, so the computer knows to
use the PPP connection for remote Internet addresses.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
You may have to perform additional configuration on the PPP
scripts in the <filename>/etc/ppp</filename>
subdirectory, and in particular, the
ISP-specific script in the <filename>/etc/ppp/peers</filename>
subdirectory. There are
basic instructions in each script. For detailed information, refer
to the Debian/GNU Linux installation instructions that you
downloaded, the pppd manual page
(type <literal>man pppd</literal>), and the <citetitle>PPP
HOWTO</citetitle> from the Linux Documentation project,
<ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org/">
<literal>http://www.linuxdoc.org/</literal></ulink>.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Once you have a PPP connection established with your ISP (it will
be displayed in the output of ifconfig), use the dselect program
to specify which additional software you want to install. Use the
<command>apt</command> <literal>[A]ccess</literal>
option to retrieve packages via anonymous FTP,
and make sure to use the <literal>[U]pdate</literal>
option to retrieve a current
list of packages from the FTP archive.
</para></listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.3">
<title id="resume-ftp">
Resuming an Interrupted Download.
</title>
<para>
You can use the ``<literal>reget</literal>'' command of the
standard <command>ftp</command> client program after reconnecting
to pick up where you left off.
</para>
<para>
Clients like <command>ncftp</command> support resumed FTP downloads,
and <command>wget</command> supports resumed FTP and HTTP downloads.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.4">
<title id="boot-time-parameters">
Boot-Time Configuration.</title>
<para>
You can configure Linux at the <literal>lilo:</literal> prompt either
by typing the kernel arguments at the <literal>BOOT lilo:</literal>
prompt, or by adding an ``<literal>append=</literal>'' directive to the
<filename>/etc/lilo.conf</filename> file; for example:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
# At the LILO prompt (example only):
BOOT lilo: parport=0x3bc,7 parport=0x3bc,none serial=0x3f8,4 serial=0x2f8,3
</screen>
</para>
<para>
<programlisting>
# Example statement for /etc/lilo.conf:
append="parport=0x3bc,none serial=0x3f8,4 serial=0x2f8,3"
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
If you modify the <filename>/etc/lilo.conf</filename> file, be sure
to run the <command>lilo</command> command to install the new
configuration.
</para>
<para>
Configuration notes for specific hardware devices are in the
documentation of the kernel source distribution,
<filename>/usr/src/linux/Documentation</filename> in most
distributions.
</para>
<para>
Refer to the <command>lilo</command> and
<filename>/etc/lilo.conf</filename> manual pages, as well as the LDP
<citetitle>BootPrompt-HowTo</citetitle> (``<xref
linkend="howtos-and-other-documentation"
endterm="howtos-and-other-documentation">''), and the documentation in
<filename>/usr/doc/lilo</filename>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.5">
<title id="man-pages-without-man">
Formatting Man Pages without <command>man</command> or
<command>groff</command>.</title>
<para>
The <command>man2html</command> program translates <command>groff</command>
text to HTML, which you can view with a Web browser. The
<command>man2html</command> program, and many like it, are availble on
the Web. Look for them with your favorite search engine.
</para>
<para>
The unformatted manual pages are stored in subdirectories of
<filename>/usr/man</filename>, <filename>/usr/local/man</filename>,
and elsewhere.
</para>
<para>
If you want to view text, use <command>nroff</command> and
<command>less</command>. Both of these programs have MSDOS
versions with an implementation of the <emphasis>man</emphasis>
macro package available as well. An example would be:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
$ nroff -man /usr/man/man1/ls.1 | less
</screen>
</para>
<para>
If you know where to find a good implementation of the
<emphasis>man</emphasis> macros without installing <emphasis>groff</emphasis>,
please let the FAQ maintainer know.
</para>
<para>
If the manual page filename ends in ``<literal>.gz</literal>,'' then
you'll need to uncompress it before formatting it, using
<command>gzip -d</command> or <command>gunzip</command>. A one-line
example would be:
</para>
<screen>
$ gzip -dc /usr/man/man1/ls.1.gz | nroff -man | less
</screen>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.6">
<title id="scrollback-in-text-mode">
How To Scroll Backwards in Text Mode.</title>
<para>
With the default US keymap, you can use <keycap>Shift</keycap> with
the <keycap>PgUp</keycap> and <keycap>PgDn</keycap> keys. (The gray
ones, not the ones on the numeric keypad.) With other keymaps, look
in <filename>/usr/lib/keytables</filename>.
You can remap the <keycap>ScrollUp</keycap> and
<keycap>ScrollDown</keycap> keys
to be whatever you like.
</para>
<para>
The <command>screen</command> program,
<ulink url="http://vector.co.jp/vpack/browse/person/an010455.html">
<literal>http://vector.co.jp/vpack/browse/person/an010455.html</literal>
</ulink>
provides a searchable scrollback buffer and the ability to take
``snapshots'' of text-mode screens.
</para>
<para>
Recent kernels that have the VGA Console driver can use dramatically
more memory for scrollback, provided that the video card can
<emphasis>actually handle</emphasis> 64 kb of video memory. Add
the line:
</para>
<para><screen>
#define VGA_CAN_DO_64B
</screen></para>
<para>
to the start of the file <filename>drivers/video/vgacon.c</filename>.
This feature may become a standard setting in future kernels. If the
video frame buffer is also enabled in the kernel, this setting may not
affect buffering.
</para>
<para>
In older kernels, the amount of scrollback is fixed, because
it is implemented using the video memory to store the scrollback
text. You may be able to get more scrollback in each virtual console
by reducing the total number of VC's. See
<filename>linux/tty.h</filename>.
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Chris Karakas&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.7">
<title id="e-mail-to-work">How To Get Email to Work.</title>
<para>
For sending mail via SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) and
receiving mail from an ISP's POP (Post Office Protocol) server, you
can use a desktop client like Netscape Communicator or KDE kmail. You
will need to enter the names of the SMTP and POP servers in the
preferences of the respective application, as well as your E-mail
address (username@isp's-domain-name), and your dial-up password. The
same applies to Usenet News. Enter the name of the NNTP (Network News
Transfer Protocol) server in your News client's preferences section.
You may also have to provide the IP addresses of the ISP's primary and
secondary name servers.
</para>
<para>
If you have a traditional MTA (Mail Transport Agent) like
<application>Sendmail</application>,
<application>Smail</application>, <application>qmail</application>,
or <application>Exim</application>,
you'll need to follow the instructions in each
package. Basically, configuration entails determining which host
machine, either on your local LAN or via dial-up Internet, is the
``Smart Host,'' if you're using SMTP. If you're using the older UUCP
protocol, then you'll need to consult the directions for configuring
UUCP, and also make sure that your ISP's system is configured to relay
mail to you.
</para>
<para>
Information about Internet hosting, and News and E-mail in general, is
available on the Usenet News group
<citetitle>news.announce.newusers</citetitle>, and those FAQ's are
also archived at <ulink url="ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/">
<literal>ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.8">
<title id="sendmail-pause">
<application>Sendmail</application> Pauses for
Up to a Minute at Each Command.
</title>
<para>
Make sure that <application>Sendmail</application> can resolve your
hostname to a valid (i.e., parsable) domain address. If you are not
connected to the Internet, or have a dial-up connection with dynamic
IP addressing, add the fully qualified domain name to the
<literal>/etc/hosts</literal> file, <emphasis>in addition</emphasis>
to the base host name; e.g., if the host name is
``<literal>bilbo</literal>'' and the domain is
``<literal>bag-end.com</literal>:''
</para>
<para>
<screen>
192.168.0.1 bilbo.bag-end.com bilbo
</screen>
</para>
<para>
And make sure that either the <literal>/etc/host.conf</literal> or <literal>
/etc/resolv.conf</literal> file contains the line:
</para>
<para><screen>
order hosts,bind
</screen></para>
<para>
<emphasis>Caution:</emphasis> Do not change the
``<literal>localhost</literal>'' entry in
<literal>/etc/hosts</literal>, because many programs depend on it for
internal message-passing.
</para>
<para>
<application>Sendmail</application> takes many factors into account
when resolving domain addresses. These factors, collectively, are
known as, ``rulesets,'' in <application>sendmail</application> jargon.
The program does <emphasis>not</emphasis> require that a domain
address be canonical, or even appear to be canonical. In the example
above, ``<literal>bilbo.</literal>'' (note the period) would work just
as well as ``<literal>bilbo.bag-end.com</literal>.'' This and other
modifications apply mainly to recent versions.
</para>
<para>
Prior to version 8.7, <application>sendmail</application> required
that the FQDN appear first in the <filename>/etc/hosts</filename>
entry. This is due to changes in the envelope address masquerade
options. Consult the <application>sendmail</application> documents.
</para>
<para>
If you have a domain name server for <emphasis>only</emphasis> a
local subnet, make sure that ``.'' refers to a SOA record on the server
machine, and that reverse lookups (check by using
<application>nslookup</application>) work for all machines on the subnet.
</para>
<para>
Finally, <literal>FEATURE</literal> configuration macro options like
<literal>nodns</literal>, <literal>always_add_domain</literal>, and
<literal>nocanonify</literal>, control how
<application>sendmail</application> interprets host names.
</para>
<para>
The document, <citetitle>Sendmail: Installation and Operation
Guide</citetitle>, included in the <literal>doc/</literal>
subdirectory of <application>Sendmail</application> source
code distributions, discusses
briefly how <application>Sendmail</application> resolves Internet
addresses. <application>Sendmail</application>
source code archives are listed at:
<ulink url="http://www.sendmail.org/">
<literal>http://www.sendmail.org/</literal></ulink>
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Chris Karakas&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.9">
<title id="switch-virtual-consoles">
How To Enable and Select Virtual Consoles.</title>
<para>
In text mode, press the left
<keycombo>
<keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F1</keycap>
</keycombo> to
<keycombo>
<keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F12</keycap>
</keycombo>
to select the consoles <literal>tty1</literal> to
<literal>tty12</literal>; Right
<keycombo>
<keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F1</keycap>
</keycombo>
gives <literal>tty13</literal> and so on. To
switch out of X you must press
<keycombo>
<keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F1</keycap>
</keycombo>, etc;
<keycombo>
<keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F5</keycap>
</keycombo>
or whatever will switch back.
</para>
<para>
However, If you have a non-PC compatible system, please see
the note below.
</para>
<para>
If you want to use a VC for ordinary login, it must be listed in
<citetitle>/etc/inittab</citetitle>,
which controls which terminals and virtual consoles have
login prompts. The X Window System needs at least one free VC in order
to start.
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Note: The key sequence is actually <keycombo>
<keycap>Ctrl</keycap></keycombo>&mdash;<literal>Meta</literal>&mdash;
<keycombo><keycap>F</keycap></keycombo><emphasis>N</emphasis>. On PC
compatible systems, the right and left <keycap>Alt</keycap> keys are
really synonymous with the keysymbols <literal>Meta_L</literal> and
<literal>Meta_R</literal>. If the binding is different, you can
determine what keys produce <literal>Meta_L</literal> and
<literal>Meta_R</literal> with <application>xkeycaps</application> or
a similar application.&rsqb;
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;David Charlap&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.10">
<title id="set-the-time-zone">How To Set the Time Zone.</title>
<para>
Change directory to <filename>/usr/lib/zoneinfo/</filename>.
Get the time zone package if
you don't have this directory. The source is available in
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/admin/time/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/admin/time/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Then make a symbolic link named <filename>localtime</filename>
pointing to one of the files
in this directory (or a subdirectory), and one called
<filename>posixrules</filename> pointing to
<filename>localtime</filename>. For example:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ ln -sf US/Mountain localtime
$ ln -sf localtime posixrules
</screen></para>
<para>
This change will take effect immediately&mdash;try <command>date</command>.
</para>
<para>
If the system uses Red Hat-style configuration files, the respective
time zone info files are <filename>/usr/share/zoneinfo</filename> and
<filename>/etc/localtime</filename>.
</para>
<para>
The manual pages for <command>tzset</command> or <command>tzselect</command>
describe setting the time zone. Some
programs recognize the ``<literal>TZ</literal>'' environment variable, but
this is not POSIX-correct.
</para>
<para>
You should also make sure that your Linux kernel clock is set to the
correct GMT time. Type <command>date -u</command> and check that the
correct UTC time is displayed.
(``<xref linkend= "computer-has-wrong-time"
endterm="computer-has-wrong-time">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.11">
<title id="get-dial-up-ppp-work">
Dial-up PPP Configuration.</title>
<para>
This information is mainly for people who do not have a wrapper
utility like <command>kppp</command> or
<command>pppconfig</command>, or are not able to get those utilities
to work correctly. If you need to manually configure PPP to dial in to
your ISP, you will need the following information:
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para>
The port that your modem is connected to:
<filename>/dev/ttyS0</filename>&ndash;<filename>/dev/ttyS3</filename>,
which correspond to COM1-COM4 under MS-DOS.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
The phone number of your ISP's data connection.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
The user name and password that your ISP gave you.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
The IP addresses of the primary and possibly secondary Domain Name
Service that you will use when dialing in to the ISP. This assumes
that you will not be using a DNS that you installed on your
system.
</para></listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>
When you have all of this information, make sure that the programs
<command>pppd</command> and <command>chat</command>,
at the very minimum, are installed correctly. In most
current distributions, they are installed in the
<filename>/usr/sbin/</filename> directory,
and you will need to be logged in as root to use them. In addition,
the following programs are also useful for configuring network
connections, determining network status, and diagnosing problems:
<filename>/sbin/ifconfig</filename>,
<filename>/sbin/route</filename>, <filename>/bin/ping</filename>,
<filename>/usr/sbin/traceroute</filename>.
</para>
<para>
These are the basic steps that you need to follow to configure PPP.
You must be logged in as root.
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para> Make sure that the serial port and modem are
operating correctly. Using a program like <command>minicomm</command>
or <command>kermit</command>, you should be able to send
<literal>AT</literal> commands to the modem and receive the
<literal>OK</literal> string in response from the modem.
</para></listitem> <listitem><para> Enter the primary and possibly
secondary Domain Name Server IP addresses in the
<filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> file, using dotted quad
notation, with the <literal>nameserver</literal> label. For example:
</para>
<para><screen>
order hosts,bind
nameserver 196.182.101.103
nameserver 196.182.101.104
</screen></para>
<para>
The nameserver addresses in the example above are examples only. They
don't correspond to actual network hosts.
</para>
<para>
The first line, <literal>order hosts,bind</literal>, tells your
networking software, when it resolves network domain addresses, to
first look in the <filename>/etc/hosts file</filename>, and then use
the bind service; i.e., the DNS servers, which are specified on the
lines that begin with nameserver. </para></listitem> <listitem><para>
Locate the chat script that PPP will use to dial the modem and connect
to your ISP. In many systems, this is either in the
<filename>/etc/chatscripts</filename> or <filename>/etc/ppp</filename>
directory, and will be called <filename>provider</filename> or
something similar. You can store a <literal>chat</literal> script
anywhere, provided that you tell <command>pppd</command> to use it
rather than the default script. Refer to the <command>chat</command>
and <command>pppd</command> manual pages, and the information below,
for details. Here is a sample <literal>chat</literal> script:
</para>
<para><screen>
ABORT BUSY
ABORT "NO CARRIER"
ABORT VOICE
ABORT "NO DIALTONE"
"" ATDT&lt;your_isp's_phone_number&gt;
ogin &lt;your_user_name&gt;
word &lt;your_password&gt;
</screen></para>
<para>
This is a <command>chat</command>
program for a simple, script based login. The <command>chat</command>
program uses the pair of strings on each line as a match/response
pair. When it starts, it sends the string
``ATDT<emphasis>your_isp's_phone_number</emphasis>,''
where you have substituted the
actual phone number of course. It then waits for the string
<literal>ogin</literal>
(a substring of the word <literal>login</literal>) and sends your user
name. It then waits for <literal>word</literal>
(a substring of <literal>password</literal>) and sends
your password. If your ISP uses a different login and password
prompts, and any additional prompts, you will need to edit the
script accordingly. Again, refer to the <command>chat</command>
manual page for details.
</para>
<para>
If your ISP uses PAP or CHAP authentication, you will need to edit the
<filename>pap-secrets</filename> or <filename>chap-secrets</filename>
files in <filename>/etc/ppp</filename> directory as well. Refer to the
manual pages for these files, as well as the instruction in the files
themselves. </para></listitem> <listitem><para> The configuration of
<command>pppd</command>, the program that maintains the actual
connection, is usually contained in two or three separate files. The
first is usually <filename>/etc/ppp/options</filename>, which contains
options that all of your system's PPP connections will use. (Yes, you
can have more than one; as many as your computer has serial ports,
generally.)
</para>
<para>
Here is a sample <filename>/etc/ppp/options</filename> file:
</para>
<para><screen>
# /etc/ppp/options
asyncmap 0
auth
crtscts
lock
noipx
# ---&lt;End of File&gt;---
</screen></para>
<para>
The options may be given on one line or each on a separate line.
Many options files are much longer, and come with a description of
each option. Here, the options mean, in order, don't remap any
characters between the PPP client and server; always use password,
PAP, or CHAP authentication when making a connection; use the
modem's hardware handshake lines for flow control; lock the serial
port when in use so no other programs can access it; and do not
use the IPX network protocol.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
For connection set-up on each individual serial port or PPP host,
there will either be an <filename>/etc/ppp/options.ttyS1</filename>,
for example,
options file for <filename>/etc/ttyS1</filename>, or a file for
your ISP in the <filename>/etc/ppp/peers</filename> directory.
The default is often called
<filename>/etc/ppp/peers/provider</filename>. Here is a sample
of the default <filename>provider</filename>
file:
</para>
<para><screen>
noauth
connect "/usr/sbin/chat -v -f /etc/chatscripts/provider"
defaultroute
/dev/ttyS1
38400
persist
</screen></para>
<para>
There might be an explanation of these and other options in the
<filename>/etc/ppp/peers/provider</filename> file itself. You
can also refer to the
<command>pppd</command> manual page for details.
Briefly, they mean: do not use PAP
authentication for this connection; use the <command>chat</command>
program and the
<filename>/etc/chatscripts/provider</filename> script, which is
described above, to
dial the phone and log in; set the network default route to the
PPP connection (so when your network software needs to resolve an
network address that is not on your local machine(s), it will use
the PPP connection to the Internet); use <filename>/dev/ttyS1</filename>
as the serial
port for the connection; set the modem speed to 38400; and keep
the <command>pppd</command> daemon running even if the connection fails.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
That is all of the configuration you need. To actually start and
stop PPP, there are often <filename>/usr/bin/pon</filename> and
<filename>/usr/bin/poff</filename> scripts
(in Debian), or something similar, and they are usually very simple,
and only contain the command:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ /usr/sbin/pppd call ${1:-provider}
</screen></para>
<para>
This will start <command>pppd</command> and use the
<literal>call</literal> option to call the
server that you type on the command line, or the provider given in
the <filename>/etc/ppp/peers/provider</filename> file if you
do not specify a remote
server. After making the call and logging in (about 30 seconds),
you should be able to use the <filename>/sbin/ifconfig</filename>
program to determine
that the connection really did establish a PPP interface (the
first will be <filename>ppp0</filename>, the second will be
<filename>ppp1</filename>, etc., depending on
how many simultaneous PPP connections you have. If something goes
wrong, you can look at the <filename>/var/log/ppp.log</filename>
file to determine what
happened. You can also view the log as the connection is being
made, by ``tailing'' it in another window; that is, viewing it as
pppd logs the connection's status information. To do this, use the
command (again, as root):
</para>
<para><screen>
$ tail -f /var/log/ppp.log
</screen></para>
<para>
On some systems the PPP output is directed to
<filename>/var/log/messages</filename>, in which case your system
may not have a dedicated PPP log file.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>
You should be also able to <command>ping</command>
one of your ISP's domain names
(e.g., <literal>mail.isp.com</literal>) and receive a response.
</para>
<para>
These are the most basic steps for configuring a PPP connection. You
will also need to take into account what other network connections may
be present (for example, if there's an Ethernet connection that has
already been assigned the default route), as well as various security
measures at your ISP's end. If you're having trouble making the
dial-up connection, usually the best way to determine what may be
going wrong is to use Seyon, minicomm, kermit, or some other program to dial
and log in manually to the ISP, and determine just exactly what you
have to do to log in, then duplicate that in the PPP scripts.
</para>
<para>
Most Linux documentation also has additional instructions for
configuring PPP connections. Refer to
(``<xref linkend="get-linux-material-by-ftp"
endterm="get-linux-material-by-ftp">'')
(``<xref linkend="howtos-and-other-documentation"
endterm="howtos-and-other-documentation">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.12">
<title id="version-of-linux-and-what-machine">
What Version of Linux and What Machine Name Is This?</title>
<para>
Type:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ uname -a
</screen></para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.13">
<title id="core-file">
What Is a ``<filename>core</filename>'' File?
</title>
<para>
A <literal>core</literal> file is created when a program terminates
unexpectedly, due to a bug, or a violation of the operating system's
or hardware's protection mechanisms. The operating system kills the
program and creates a <filename>core</filename> file that programmers
can use to figure out what went wrong. It contains a detailed
description of the state that the program was in when it died.
</para>
<para>
If would like to determine what program a core file came from, use the
<literal>file</literal> command, like this:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
$ file core
</screen>
</para>
<para>
That will tell you the name of the program that produced the core
dump. You may want to write the maintainer(s) of the program, telling
them that their program <emphasis>dumped core.</emphasis>
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Eric Hanchrow&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.14">
<title id="enable-core-dumps">
How To Enable or Disable Core Dumps.</title>
<para>
By using the <command>ulimit</command> command in
<command>bash</command>, the <command>limit</command> command in
<command>tcsh</command>, or the
<command>rlimit</command> command in <command>ksh</command>.
See the appropriate manual page for details.
</para>
<para>
This setting affects all programs run from the shell (directly or
indirectly), not the whole system.
</para>
<para>
If you wish to enable or disable core dumping for all processes by
default, you can change the default setting in
<filename>linux/sched.h</filename>. Refer to
definition of <literal>INIT_TASK</literal>, and look also in
<filename>linux/resource.h</filename>.
</para>
<para>
PAM support optimizes the system's environment, including the amount
of memory a user is allowed. In some distributions this parameter is
configurable in the <literal>/etc/security/limits.conf</literal> file.
For more information, refer to the <citetitle>Linux Administrator's
Security Guide</citetitle>. (``<xref
linkend="howtos-and-other-documentation"
endterm="howtos-and-other-documentation">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.15">
<title id="upgrade-recompile-kernel">
How To Upgrade/Recompile a Kernel.</title>
<para>
See the <citetitle>Kernel HOWTO</citetitle> or the
<filename>README</filename> files which come with the kernel release
on
<ulink url="ftp.cs.helsinki.fi/pub/Software/Linux/Kernel/">
<literal>ftp.cs.helsinki.fi/pub/Software/Linux/Kernel/</literal>
</ulink> and mirrors.
(See ``<xref linkend="get-linux-material-by-ftp"
endterm="get-linux-material-by-ftp">'') You may already have a version
of the kernel source code installed on your system, but if it is part
of a standard distribution it is likely to be somewhat out of date
(this is not a problem if you only want a custom configured kernel,
but it probably is if you need to upgrade.)
</para>
<para>
With newer kernels you can (and should) make all of the following
targets. Don't forget that you can specify multiple targets with one
command.
</para>
<para><screen>
$ make clean dep install modules modules_install
</screen></para>
<para>
Also remember to update the module dependencies.
</para>
<para><screen>
$ depmod -a
</screen></para>
<para>
This command can be run automatically at boot time. On Debian/GNU
Linux systems, the command is part of the
<filename>/etc/init.d/modutils</filename> script,
and can be linked appropriately in the
<filename>/etc/rc</filename><emphasis>x</emphasis><filename>.d/</filename>
directories. For
more information on <command>depmod</command>, see the manual page.
</para>
<para>
Make sure you are using the most recent version of the modutils
utilities, as well as all other supporting packages. Refer to the file
<filename>Documentation/Changes</filename> in the kernel source
tree for specifics, and be
sure to consult the <filename>README</filename> file in the
<application>modutils</application> package.
</para>
<para>
Remember that to make the new kernel boot you must run <command>lilo</command>
after copying the kernel into your root partition. The
Makefile in some kernels have a special <literal>zlilo</literal>
target for this; try:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ make zlilo
</screen></para>
<para>
On current systems, however, you can simply copy the
<filename>zImage</filename> or <filename>bzImage</filename> file (in
<filename>arch/i386/boot/</filename> to the
<filename>/boot/</filename> directory on the root file system, or to a
floppy using the <command>dd</command> command. Refer also to the
question, How do I get LILO to boot the kernel image?
</para>
<para>
Kernel version numbers with an odd minor version (ie, 1.1.x, 1.3.x)
are the testing releases; stable production kernels have even minor
versions (1.0.x, 1.2.x). If you want to try the testing kernels you
should probably subscribe to the linux-kernel mailing list.
(``<xref linkend="what-mailing-lists-are-there"
endterm="what-mailing-lists-are-there">'')
</para>
<para>
The Web site
<ulink url="http://www.kernelnotes.org/">
<literal>http://www.kernelnotes.org/</literal></ulink> has lots of
information and links to other sites that provide information about
Linux kernel updates.
</para>
<para>
Also refer to the questions,
``<xref linkend="upgraded-kernel-pcmcia-doesnt-work"
endterm="upgraded-kernel-pcmcia-doesnt-work">''
and ``<xref linkend="lilo-boot-kernel-image"
endterm="lilo-boot-kernel-image">''
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.16">
<title id="serial-ports-by-sharing">
Can Linux Use More than 3 Serial Ports by Sharing Interrupts?</title>
<para>
Yes, but you won't be able to use simultaneously two ordinary ports
which share an interrupt (without some trickery). This is a limitation
of the ISA Bus architecture.
</para>
<para>
See the <citetitle>Serial HOWTO</citetitle> for information about
possible solutions and workarounds for this problem.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.17">
<title id="configure-emacs-with-default">
Configuring <application>Emacs</application>'s Default Settings.</title>
<para>
Create a file in your home directory named
<filename>.emacs</filename> with the Emacs Lisp
commands that you want to run every time Emacs starts up. You won't
see the file in the directory listing. (The leading '.' tells
<command>ls</command> not to
display it, unless you use the <literal>-a</literal> command
line switch with <command>ls</command>.)
</para>
<para>
Any kind of Emacs Lisp statement will work in the
<filename>.emacs</filename> file,
including entire <literal>defuns</literal>.
Emacs uses lisp variables and statements extensively, and
many of the editing functions are written in Emacs Lisp.
For example, to enable word wrapping whenever
you edit a file that ends with <filename>.txt</filename>,
add the following statement. This is from the Emacs
Texinfo help document (
<keycombo><keycap>F1</keycap><keycap>i</keycap></keycombo>,
then <keycap>m</keycap> <literal>Emacs</literal> <keycap>Return</keycap>):
</para>
<para>
<programlisting>
(add-hook text-mode-hook
'(lambda () (auto-fill-mode 1)))
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
This adds a statement that calls a <emphasis>hook</emphasis>
function whenever a text editing mode is entered for that
buffer. The value of <literal>text-mode-hook</literal>,
which is a variable, to <literal>auto-fill-mode</literal>,
which is a function.
</para>
<para>
If you want to turn off the menu bar at the top of each Emacs frame,
add this statement:
</para>
<para>
<programlisting>
(menu-bar-mode -1)
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
And if you want to include an Emacs Lisp program that someone has
written, like <filename>msb.el</filename>
(an enhanced, pop-up buffer menu), make sure the
lisp file is in a directory where Emacs can find it (usually it will
be named Site-lisp), and add these statements in the
<filename>.emacs</filename> file:
</para>
<para>
<programlisting>
(require 'msb)
(msb-mode 1)
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
Most tasks have several possible solutions in Emacs Lisp. Any task
that can be programmed in Emacs Lisp is valid in the
<filename>.emacs</filename> file. For
more information, consult the Texinfo documentation.
There is also a FAQ list for Emacs (refer to: What
other FAQ's are there for Linux? ).
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.18">
<title id="make-rescue-floppy">
How To Make a Rescue Floppy.</title>
<para>
Make a file system on it with bin, etc, lib and dev
directories&mdash;everything you need. Install a kernel on it and arrange
to have LILO boot it from the floppy (see the LILO documentation, in
<filename>lilo.u.*.ps</filename>).
</para>
<para>
If you build the kernel (or tell LILO to tell the kernel) to have a
RAM disk the same size as the floppy the RAM disk will be loaded at
boot time and mounted as root in place of the floppy.
</para>
<para>
See the <citetitle>Bootdisk HOWTO</citetitle>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.19">
<title id="remap-keyboard">
How To Remap a Keyboard to UK, French, Etc.?</title>
<para>
For recent kernels, get
<filename>/pub/Linux/system/Keyboards/kbd-0.90.tar.gz</filename>
from
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/</literal></ulink>.
Make sure you get the appropriate version; you
have to use the right keyboard mapping package for your kernel
version.
For older kernels you have to edit the top-level kernel
<filename>Makefile</filename>, in
<filename>/usr/src/linux/</filename>.
You may find more helpful information in <citetitle>The Linux Keyboard and
Console HOWTO</citetitle>, by Andries Brouwer, at
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.20">
<title id="num-lock-default-on">
How To Get NUM LOCK to Default to On.</title>
<para>
Use the <command>setleds</command> program, for
example (in <filename>/etc/rc.local</filename> or one of the
<filename>/etc/rc.d/*</filename> files):
</para>
<para>
<programlisting>
for t in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
do
setleds +num &lt; /dev/tty$t &gt; /dev/null
done
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
<command>setleds</command> is part of the kbd package
("How do I remap my keyboard
to UK, French, etc.? ").
Alternatively, patch your kernel. You need to arrange for
<literal>KBD_DEFLEDS</literal>
to be defined to (<literal>1 &lt;&lt; VC_NUMLOCK</literal>) when compiling
<filename>drivers/char/keyboard.c</filename>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.21">
<title id="set-terminal-colors">
How To Set (Or Reset) Initial Terminal Colors.</title>
<para>
The following shell script should work for VGA consoles:
</para>
<para>
<programlisting>
for n in 1 2 4 5 6 7 8; do
setterm -fore yellow -bold on -back blue -store &gt; /dev/tty$n
done
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
Substitute your favorite colors, and use
<filename>/dev/ttyS$n</filename> for serial terminals.
</para>
<para>
To make sure they are reset when people log out (if they've been
changed):
</para>
<para>
Replace the references to <literal>getty</literal>
(or <literal>mingetty</literal> or <literal>uugetty</literal> or
whatever) in
<filename>/etc/inittab</filename> with references to
<literal>/sbin/mygetty</literal>.
</para>
<para>
<programlisting>
#!/bin/sh
setterm -fore yellow -bold on -back blue -store &gt; $1
exec /sbin/mingetty $@
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
[Jim Dennis]
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="7.22">
<title id="more-than-128mb-of-swap">
How To Have More Than 128Mb of Swap.</title>
<para>
Use several swap partitions or swap files. Linux kernels before
version 2.2 supported up to 16 swap areas, each of up to 128Mb.
Recent versions do not have this limitation.
</para>
<para>
Very old kernels only supported swap partition sizes up to 16Mb.
</para>
<para>
Linux on machines with 8KB paging, like Alpha and Sparc64, support a
swap partition up to 512MB. The 128MB limitation comes from
<literal>PAGE_SIZE*BITSPERBYTE</literal>
on machines with 4KB paging, but is 512KB on
machines with 8KB paging. The limit is due to the use of a single page
allocation map.
</para>
<para>
The file <filename>mm/swapfile.c</filename> has all of the gory details.
</para>
<para>
[Peter Moulder, Gordon Weast]
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title id="math-lib-errors">
How To Prevent Errors when Linking Programs with Math Functions.</title>
<para>
Older run-time libraries included the math library in the C run-time
library. It was not necessary to specify the math library separately
when compiling. If the compiler generates a message like this when
linking a program that uses math functions:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
/tmp/ccDUQM4J.o: In function `main':
/tmp/ccDUQM4J.o(.text+0x19): undefined reference to `sqrt'
collect2: ld returned 1 exit status
</screen>
</para>
<para>
You need use the <literal>-lm</literal> option with GCC to link with
the math libraries:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
# gcc -o program program.c -lm
</screen>
</para>
<para>
Make sure also to use the statement
<literal>#include &lt;math.h&gt;</literal> in the source file.
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Florian Schmidt&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 label="8">
<title>Miscellaneous Information and Questions Answered</title>
<sect2 label="8.1">
<title id="program-xyz-under-linux">
How To Program <emphasis>XYZ</emphasis> Under Linux.</title>
<para>
Read the manuals, or a good book on Unix and the manual pages
(type <literal>man man</literal>).
There is a lot of GNU Info documentation, which is often more
useful as a tutorial. Run Emacs and type
<keycombo><keycap>F1</keycap><keycap>i</keycap></keycombo>,
or type <command>info info</command> if
you don't have or don't like Emacs. Note that the Emacs libc node may
not exactly describe the latest Linux libc, or GNU glibc2. But the GNU
project and LDP are always looking for volunteers to upgrade their
library documentation.
</para>
<para>
Anyway, between the existing Texinfo documentation, and the manual
pages in sections 2 and 3, should provide enough information to get
started.
</para>
<para>
As with all free software, the best tutorial is the source code
itself.
</para>
<para>
The latest release of the Linux manual pages, a collection of useful
GNU Info documentation, and various other information related to
programming Linux, can be found on
<ulink url="metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/man-pages/">
<literal>metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/man-pages/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="8.2">
<title id="about-elf-glibc">What's All This about ELF? glibc?</title>
<para>
See the <citetitle>ELF HOWTO</citetitle>
by Daniel Barlow. Note that this is not the file
<filename>move-to-elf</filename>,
which is a blow-by-blow account of how to upgrade to ELF
manually.
</para>
<para>
Linux has two different formats for executables, object files, and
object code libraries, known as, ``ELF.'' (The old format is called
``a.out.'') They have advantages, including better support for shared
libraries and dynamic linking.
</para>
<para>
Both a.out and ELF binaries can coexist on a system. However, they use
different shared C libraries, both of which have to be installed.
</para>
<para>
If you want to find out whether your system can run ELF binaries, look
in <filename>/lib</filename> for a file named,
``<filename>libc.so.5</filename>.'' If it's there, you probably have
ELF libraries. If you want to know whether your installation actually
is ELF you can pick a representative program, like
<command>ls</command>, and run file on it:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
-chiark:~> file /bin/ls
/bin/ls: Linux/i386 impure executable (OMAGIC) - stripped
valour:~> file /bin/ls
/bin/ls: ELF 32-bit LSB executable, Intel 80386, version 1, stripped
</screen>
</para>
<para>
There is a patch to get 1.2.x to compile using the ELF compilers, and
produce ELF core dumps, at
<ulink url="ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/packages/GCC/">
<literal>ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/packages/GCC/</literal></ulink>. You
do not need the patch merely to run ELF binaries. 1.3.x and later do
not need the patch at all.
</para>
<para>
The GNU glibc2 libraries are essentially more recent versions of
ELF libraries that follow most of the same processes for dynamic
linking and loading. Upgrade information is contained in
(``<xref linkend="upgrade-libraries-withough-trashing"
endterm="upgrade-libraries-withough-trashing">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="8.3">
<title id="determine-packages-installed">
How To Determine What Packages Are Installed on a System.</title>
<para>
For distributions that use RPM format packages, use the command:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
$ rpm -qa
</screen>
</para>
<para>
You need to be logged in as root. You can save the output to a text
file for future reference, a command like:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
$ rpm -qa >installed-packages
</screen>
</para>
<para>
For Debian systems, the equivalent command is:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
$ dpkg -l
</screen>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="8.4">
<title id="What-is-a-gz-file-tgz">
What Is a <literal>.gz</literal> File? And a <literal>.tgz</literal>?
And <literal>.bz2</literal>? And... ?</title>
<para>
<literal>.gz</literal> (and <literal>.z</literal>) files
are compressed using GNU <command>gzip</command>. You need to use
<command>gunzip</command> (which is a symlink to the
<command>gzip</command> command that comes with most
Linux installations) to unpack the file.
</para>
<para>
<literal>.taz</literal>, <literal>.tar.Z</literal>, and
<literal>.tz</literal> are <emphasis>tar</emphasis> files (made with
<command>tar</command>) and compressed using
<command>compress</command>. The standard *nix
<command>compress</command> is proprietary software, but free
equivalents like ncompress exist.
</para>
<para>
<literal>.tgz</literal> (or <literal>.tpz</literal>) is a
tar file compressed with <command>gzip</command>.
</para>
<para>
<literal>.bz2</literal> is a file compressed by the more
recently introduced (and efficient) <command>bzip2</command>.
</para>
<para>
<literal>.lsm</literal> is a
<citetitle>Linux Software Map</citetitle> entry,
in the form of a short text file.
Details about the LSM project and the LSM itself are available in the
subdirectory on
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
<literal>.deb</literal> is a Debian Binary Package&mdash;the binary
package format used by
the Debian GNU/Linux distribution. It is manipulated using
<command>dpkg</command> and
<command>dpkg-deb</command> (available on
Debian systems and from
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.debian.org/">
<literal>ftp://ftp.debian.org//</literal></ulink>).
</para>
<para>
<literal>.rpm</literal> is a
Red Hat RPM package, which is used in the Red Hat
and similar distributions.
</para>
<para>
<literal>.sit</literal> is a compressed Macintosh archive made with
StuffIt, a commercial program. Aladdin Systems Inc., the
manufacturer of StuffIt, has a free expander utility that will
uncompress these archives. You can download it at
<ulink url="http://www.aladdinsys.com/expander/">
<literal>http://www.aladdinsys.com/expander/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The <command>file</command> command can often tell you what a file is.
</para>
<para>
If you find that <command>gzip</command> complains when you try to
uncompress a file, you probably downloaded it in ASCII mode by
mistake. You must download most things in binary mode:
``<literal>get</literal>,'' to download the file.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="8.5">
<title id="vfs">
What Does VFS Stand For?</title>
<para>
<emphasis>Virtual File System</emphasis>.
It's the abstraction layer between the user and
real file systems like <citetitle>ext2</citetitle>,
<citetitle>Minix</citetitle> and <citetitle>MS-DOS</citetitle>.
Among other things, its
job is to flush the read buffer when it detects a disk change on the
floppy disk drive.
</para>
<para>
<screen>
VFS: Disk change detected on device 2/0
</screen>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="8.6">
<title id="bogomip">What is a BogoMip?</title>
<para>
``BogoMips'' is a combination of <emphasis>Bogus</emphasis> and
<emphasis>Mips</emphasis>.
MIPS stands for
(depending on who you ask)
<emphasis>Millions of Instructions per Second</emphasis>, or
<emphasis>Meaningless Indication of Processor Speed</emphasis>.
</para>
<para>
The number printed at boot time is the result of a kernel timing
calibration, used for very short delay loops by some device drivers.
</para>
<para>
According to the <citetitle>BogoMips mini-HOWTO</citetitle>,
the rating for your machine will be:
</para>
<!--
<para>
<table><title id="bogo-table">Common BogoMips Ratings</title>
<tgroup cols=3 align=left>
<colspec colname=c1>
<colspec colname=c2>
<colspec colname=c3>
<spanspec spanname="c1c2" namest=c1 nameend=c2>
<spanspec spanname="c2c3" namest=c2 nameend=c3>
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Processor</entry>
<entry>BogoMips</entry>
<entry>Comparison</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>Intel 8088</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.004</entry>
<entry>0.02</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Intel/AMD 386SX</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.14</entry>
<entry>0.8</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Intel/AMD 386DX</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.18</entry>
<entry>1 (definition)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Motorola 68030</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.25</entry>
<entry>1.4</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Cyrix/IBM 486</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.34</entry>
<entry>1.8</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Intel Pentium</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.40</entry>
<entry>2.2</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Intel 486</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.50</entry>
<entry>2.8</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>AMD 5x86</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.50</entry>
<entry>2.8</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Mips R4000/R4400</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.50</entry>
<entry>2.8</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Nexgen Nx586</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.75</entry>
<entry>4.2</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>PowerPC 601</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.84</entry>
<entry>4.7</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Alpha 21064/21064A</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.99</entry>
<entry>5.5</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Alpha 21066/21066A</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.99</entry>
<entry>5.5</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Alpha 21164/21164A</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.99</entry>
<entry>5.5</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Intel Pentium Pro</entry>
<entry>clock * 0.99</entry>
<entry>5.5</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Cyrix 5x86/6x86</entry>
<entry>clock * 1.00</entry>
<entry>5.6</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Intel Pentium II/III</entry>
<entry>clock * 1.00</entry>
<entry>5.6</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Intel Celeron</entry>
<entry>clock * 1.00</entry>
<entry>5.6</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Mips R4600</entry>
<entry>clock * 1.00</entry>
<entry>5.6</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Alpha 21264</entry>
<entry>clock * 1.99</entry>
<entry>11.1</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>AMD K5/K6/K6-2/K6-III</entry>
<entry>clock * 2.00</entry>
<entry>11.1</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>UltraSparc II</entry>
<entry>clock * 2.00</entry>
<entry>11.1</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Pentium MMX</entry>
<entry>clock * 2.00</entry>
<entry>11.1</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>PowerPC 604/604e/750</entry>
<entry>clock * 2.00</entry>
<entry>11.1</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Motorola 68060</entry>
<entry>clock * 2.01</entry>
<entry>11.2</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>Motorola 68040</entry>
<entry spanname="c2c3">Not enough data (yet).</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>AMD Athlon</entry>
<entry spanname="c2c3">Not enough data (yet).</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>IBM S390</entry>
<entry spanname="c2c3">Not enough data (yet).</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
</para>
-->
<para>
<screen>
Common BogoMips Ratings
Processor BogoMips Comparison
--------- -------- ----------
Intel 8088 clock * 0.004 0.02
Intel/AMD 386SX clock * 0.14 0.8
Intel/AMD 386DX clock * 0.18 1 (definition)
Motorola 68030 clock * 0.25 1.4
Cyrix/IBM 486 clock * 0.34 1.8
Intel Pentium clock * 0.40 2.2
Intel 486 clock * 0.50 2.8
AMD 5x86 clock * 0.50 2.8
Mips R4000/R4400 clock * 0.50 2.8
Nexgen Nx586 clock * 0.75 4.2
PowerPC 601 clock * 0.84 4.7
Alpha 21064/21064A clock * 0.99 5.5
Alpha 21066/21066A clock * 0.99 5.5
Alpha 21164/21164A clock * 0.99 5.5
Intel Pentium Pro clock * 0.99 5.5
Cyrix 5x86/6x86 clock * 1.00 5.6
Intel Pentium II/III clock * 1.00 5.6
Intel Celeron clock * 1.00 5.6
Mips R4600 clock * 1.00 5.6
Alpha 21264 clock * 1.99 11.1
AMD K5/K6/K6-2/K6-III clock * 2.00 11.1
UltraSparc II clock * 2.00 11.1
Pentium MMX clock * 2.00 11.1
PowerPC 604/604e/750 clock * 2.00 11.1
Motorola 68060 clock * 2.01 11.2
Motorola 68040 Not enough data (yet).
AMD Athlon Not enough data (yet).
IBM S390 Not enough data (yet).
</screen>
</para>
<para>
If the number is wildly lower, you may have the Turbo button or CPU
speed set incorrectly, or have some kind of caching problem (as
described in
(``<xref linkend="add-memory-system-slows"
endterm="add-memory-system-slows">'')
</para>
<para>
For values people have seen with other, rarer, chips, or to calculate
your own BogoMips rating, please refer to the
<citetitle>BogoMips Mini-HOWTO</citetitle>, on
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/</literal></ulink>.
(``<xref linkend="howtos-and-other-documentation"
endterm="howtos-and-other-documentation">'')
</para>
<para>
[Wim van Dorst]
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="8.7">
<title id="online-free-periodicals">
What Online/Free Periodicals Exist for Linux?</title>
<para>
There are a number of recent additions to the list of periodicals
devoted to Linux and free software:
</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para>
<citetitle>geek news</citetitle>.
<ulink url="http://geeknews.cjb.net/">
<literal>http://geeknews.cjb.net/</literal></ulink>. Headlines for
articles about Linux, like the
<citetitle>comp.os.linux.announce</citetitle> and Techweb postings,
and general interest, like Associated Press stories.
</para></listitem> <listitem><para> <citetitle>Linux
Gazette</citetitle>.
<ulink url="http://www.linuxgazette.com/">
<literal>http://www.linuxgazette.com/</literal></ulink>. This is the
longest-running of the on-line periodicals, and the only one that
publishes source code. </para></listitem> <listitem><para>
<citetitle>Linux Today</citetitle>.
<ulink url="http://www.linuxtoday.com">
<literal>http://www.linuxtoday.com</literal></ulink>. News
and opinion related to the Linux community, updated daily.
</para></listitem> <listitem><para> <citetitle>Linux Weekly
News</citetitle>.
<ulink url="http://lwn.net">
<literal>http://lwn.net</literal></ulink>.
News about the Linux community,
updated weekly. </para></listitem> <listitem><para>
<citetitle>Slashdot</citetitle>.
<ulink url="http://www.slashdot.org">
<literal>http://www.slashdot.org</literal></ulink>. News about the
free software community and culture. </para></listitem>
<listitem><para> <citetitle>Freshmeat</citetitle>.
<ulink url="http://www.freshmeat.net/">
<literal>http://www.freshmeat.net/</literal></ulink>.
Notices of new and updated software for
Linux and other free OS's. </para></listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
Please send additions to this list to the FAQ maintainer.
</para>
<para>
[Jim Dennis, Robert Kiesling]
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="8.8">
<title id="how-many-people">
How Many People Use Linux?</title>
<para>
Linux is freely available, and no one is required to register with any
central authority, so it is difficult to know. Several businesses
survive solely on selling and supporting Linux. Linux news groups are
some of the most heavily read on Usenet. Accurate numbers are hard to
come by, but the number is almost certainly in the millions.
</para>
<para>
However, people can register as Linux users at the Linux Counter
project, which has been in existence since 1993. In August, 1998, the
project counted more than 70,000 users.
</para>
<para>
Visit the Web site at
<ulink url="http://counter.li.org/">
<literal>http://counter.li.org/</literal></ulink> and fill in the
registration form. If you don't want to use the Web, send E-mail to
<ulink url="mailto:counter@counter.li.org">
<literal>counter@counter.li.org</literal></ulink> with the
subject line, ``<literal>I use Linux at home</literal>,'' or
``<literal>I use Linux at work.</literal>''
</para>
<para>
The current count is posted monthly to
<citetitle>comp.os.linux.misc</citetitle>, and is always available
from the Web site.
</para>
<para>
[Harald Tveit Alvestrand]
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="8.9">
<title id="how-many-redux">
How Many People Use Linux? (Redux.)</title>
<para>
In 1999, International Data Corporation released its first commercial
forecast of Linux sales. The report quantifies Linux vendor sales in
1996, 1997, and 1998, and forecasts through the year 2003.
</para>
<para>
To obtain the report, contact IDC at
<ulink url="mailto:ctoffel@idc.com">
<literal>ctoffel@idc.com</literal></ulink>. Their Web site is
<ulink url="http://www.itresearch.com/">
<literal>http://www.itresearch.com/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="8.10">
<title id="what-is-best">
What Is the Best (Distribution|SCSI Card|Editor|CD-ROM Drive|....) </title>
<para>
The ``best'' of anything depends on your particular needs.
Discussions like these frequently occur on Usenet. Most often they're
flame bait. Answering is generally a waste of time. Free software
licensing is unrestrictive enough, that, with a little experience, you
can perform your own testing on your own hosts.
</para>
<para>
A better way to phrase a specific inquiry might be: ``Where can I
find....''
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="8.11">
<title id="pronounce-linux">How Does One Pronounce Linux?</title>
<para>
This question produces an outrageous amount of heated debate.
</para>
<para>
If you want to hear Linus himself say how he pronounces it, download
<filename>english.au</filename> or <filename>swedish.au</filename>
from
<ulink url="ftp://ftp.funet.fi/pub/Linux/PEOPLE/Linus/SillySounds/">
<literal>ftp.funet.fi/pub/Linux/PEOPLE/Linus/SillySounds/</literal></ulink>.
If you have a sound card or the PC-speaker audio driver you can hear
them by typing
</para>
<para><screen>
$ cat english.au >/dev/audio
</screen></para>
<para>
The difference isn't in the pronunciation of Linux but in the language
Linus uses to say, ``hello.''
</para>
<para>
For the benefit of those who don't have the equipment or inclination:
Linus pronounces Linux approximately as Leenus, where the ``ee'' is
pronounced as in ``feet,'' but rather shorter, and the ``u'' is like a
much shorter version of the French ``eu'' sound in ``peur''
(pronouncing it as the ``u'' in ``put'' is probably passable).
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 label="9">
<title>Frequently Encountered Error Messages</title>
<sect2 label="9.1">
<title id="modprobe-cant-locate-module">
<command>Modprobe</command> Can't Locate Module,
<emphasis>XXX</emphasis>, and Similar Messages.</title>
<para>
These types of messages mostly occur at boot time or shutdown. If
modprobe, insmod, or rmmod complain about not being able to find a
module, add the following to the <filename>/etc/modules.conf</filename> or
<filename>/etc/modutils/aliases</filename>
file, whichever is present on your system.
</para>
<para><screen>
$ alias &lt;module-name&gt; off
</screen></para>
<para>
And use the name of the module that appears in the error message.
</para>
<para>
[J.H.M. Dassen]
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.2">
<title id="unknown-terminal-type">
Unknown Terminal Type ``<literal>linux</literal>'' and Similar.</title>
<para>
In early kernels the default console terminal type has changed from
``<literal>console</literal>'' to ``<literal>linux</literal>.'' You
must edit <filename>/etc/termcap</filename> to change the line
reading:
</para>
<para><screen>
console|con80x25:\
</screen></para>
<para>
to
</para>
<para><screen>
linux|console|con80x25:\
</screen></para>
<para>
(there may be an additional ``<literal>dumb</literal>''
in there&mdash;if so it should be removed.)
</para>
<para>
To get the editor to work you may need type:
</para>
<para><screen>
$ TERM=console
</screen></para>
<para>
(for <command>bash</command> and <command>ksh</command>), or
</para>
<para><screen>
$ setenv TERM console
</screen></para>
<para>
for <command>csh</command> or <command>tcsh</command>.
</para>
<para>
Some programs use <filename>/usr/lib/terminfo</filename>
instead of <filename>/etc/termcap</filename>. For these
programs you should upgrade your terminfo package,
which is part of ncurses.
</para>
<para>
The same is true for X terminal displays. If your distribution
sets the <literal>TERM</literal> to something strange like
<literal>xterm-24-color</literal>, you can simply reset it
to a generic value from the command line:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
$ TERM="xterm"; export TERM
</screen>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.3">
<title id="inet-warning-old-style">
<literal>INET: Warning: old style ioctl... called!</literal></title>
<para>
You are trying to use the old network configuration utilities. The new
ones can be found on
<ulink url="ftp.linux.org.uk/pub/linux/Networking/PROGRAMS/NetTools/">
<literal>ftp.linux.org.uk/pub/linux/Networking/PROGRAMS/NetTools/</literal></ulink> (source only, I'm afraid).
</para>
<para>
Note that they cannot be used just like the old-style programs. See
the <citetitle>NET-2 HOWTO</citetitle> for instructions on how to set
up the old-style networking programs correctly. Even better, see the
<citetitle>NET-3 HOWTO</citetitle> and upgrade your networking
software.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.4">
<title id="ld-unrecognized">
<literal>ld: unrecognized option '-m486'</literal></title>
<para>
You have an old version of <command>ld</command>.
Install a newer binutils package that
contains an updated <command>ld</command>. Look on tsx-11.mit.edu in
<filename>/pub/linux/packages/GCC/</filename> for
<filename>binutils-2.6.0.2.bin.tar.gz</filename>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.5">
<title id="gcc-says">
GCC Says, ``<literal>Internal compiler error</literal>.''</title>
<para>
If the fault is repeatable (i.e., it always happens at the same place
in the same file&mdash;even after rebooting and trying again, using a
stable kernel) you have discovered a bug in GCC. See the GCC Info
documentation (type
<keycombo><keycap>F1</keycap><keycap>i</keycap></keycombo> in Emacs,
and select GCC from the menu) for details on how to report the
error. Make sure you have the latest version, though.
</para>
<para>
Note that this is probably not a Linux-specific problem. Unless you
are compiling a program many other Linux users also compile, you
should not post your bug report to any of the comp.os.linux groups.
</para>
<para>
If the problem is not repeatable, you may be experiencing memory
corruption. Refer to the answer:
(``<xref linkend="make-says" endterm="make-says">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.6">
<title id="make-says">
Make Says, ``<literal>Error 139.</literal>''</title>
<para>
Your compiler (GCC) dumped core. You probably have a corrupted, buggy,
or old version of GCC&mdash;get the latest release or EGCS. Alternatively,
you may be running out of swap space. Refer to:
(``<xref linkend="machine-runs-very-slowly-when"
endterm="machine-runs-very-slowly-when">'')
</para>
<para>
If this doesn't fix the problem, you are probably having problems with
memory or disk corruption. Check that the clock rate, wait states, and
refresh timing for your SIMMS and cache are correct (hardware manuals
are sometimes wrong, too). If so, you may have some marginal SIMMS, or
a faulty motherboard or hard disk or controller.
</para>
<para>
Linux is a very good memory tester&mdash;much better than MS-DOS based
memory test programs.
</para>
<para>
Reportedly, some clone x87 math coprocessors can cause problems. Try
compiling a kernel with math emulation
(``<xref linkend="upgrade-recompile-kernel"
endterm="upgrade-recompile-kernel">'')
<literal>no387</literal>
kernel command line flag on the LILO prompt to force the kernel to use
math emulation, or it may be able to work and still use the '387, with
the math emulation compiled in but mainly unused.
</para>
<para>
More information about this problem is available on the Web at
<ulink url="http://www.bitwizard.nl/sig11/">
<literal>http://www.bitwizard.nl/sig11/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.7">
<title id="shell-init-permission">
Shell-Init: Permission Denied when I Log In.</title>
<para>
Your root directory and all the directories up to your home directory
must be readable and executable by everybody. See the manual page for
<command>chmod</command> or a book on Unix for how to fix the problem.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.8">
<title id="no-utmp-entry">
No Utmp Entry. You Must Exec ... when Logging In.</title>
<para>
Your <filename>/var/run/utmp</filename> is screwed up. You should have
</para>
<para><screen>
/var/run/utmp
</screen></para>
<para>
in your <filename>/etc/rc.local</filename> or
<filename>/etc/rc.d/*</filename>. See,
(``<xref linkend="screwed-up-system-and-cant-log-in"
endterm="screwed-up-system-and-cant-log-in">'') Note that the
<filename>utmp</filename> may also
be found in <filename>/var/adm/</filename> or
<filename>/etc/</filename> on some older systems.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.9">
<title id="warning--bdflush">Warning--bdflush Not Running.</title>
<para>
Modern kernels use a better strategy for writing cached disk blocks.
In addition to the kernel changes, this involves replacing the old
<command>update</command> program which used to write everything every
30 seconds with a more subtle daemon (actually a pair), known as
<command>bdflush</command>. Get
<filename>bdflush-</filename><emphasis>n.n</emphasis><filename>.tar.gz</filename>
from the same place as the kernel source code (``<xref
linkend="upgrade-recompile-kernel"
endterm="upgrade-recompile-kernel">'') and compile and install
it. <command>bdflush</command> should be started before the usual
boot-time file system checks. It will work fine with older kernels as
well, so there's no need to keep the old <command>update</command>
around.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.10">
<title id="warning-obsolete-routing">
<literal>Warning: obsolete routing request made</literal>.</title>
<para>
This is nothing to worry about. The message means that your version
<command>route</command> is a little out of date, compared to the
kernel. You can make the message go away by getting a new version of
<command>route</command> from the same place as the kernel source
code. (``<xref linkend="upgrade-recompile-kernel"
endterm="upgrade-recompile-kernel">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.11">
<title id="ext2-fs-warning-mounting">
<literal>EXT2-fs: warning: mounting unchecked file system</literal>.</title>
<para>
You need to run <command>e2fsck</command> (or <literal>fsck -t
ext2</literal> if you have the <command>fsck</command> front end
program) with the <command>-a</command> option to get it to clear the
``<literal>dirty</literal>'' flag, and then cleanly unmount the
partition during each shutdown.
</para>
<para>
The easiest way to do this is to get the latest
<command>fsck</command>, <command>umount</command>, and
<command>shutdown</command> commands, available in Rik Faith's
<filename>util-linux</filename> package (``<xref
linkend="get-linux-material-by-ftp"
endterm="get-linux-material-by-ftp">'') You have to make sure that
your <filename>/etc/rc*/</filename> scripts use them correctly.
</para>
<para>
NB: Don't try to check a file system that's mounted read/write. This
includes the root partition if you don't see
</para>
<para><screen>
VFS: mounted root ... read-only
</screen></para>
<para>
at boot time. You must arrange to mount the root file system read/only
to start with, check it if necessary, and then remount it read/write.
Almost all distributions do this. If your's doesn't, read the
documentation that comes with <filename>util-linux</filename> to find
out how to do this.
</para>
<para>
Note that you need to specify the <command>-n</command> option to
<command>mount</command> so it won't try to update
<filename>/etc/mtab</filename>, since the root file system is still
read-only, and this will otherwise cause it to fail.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.12">
<title id="ext2-fs-maximal">
<literal>EXT2-fs warning: maximal count reached</literal>.</title>
<para>
This message is issued by the kernel when it mounts a file system
that's marked as clean, but whose "number of mounts since check"
counter has reached the predefined value. The solution is to get the
latest version of the ext2fs utilities
(<filename>e2fsprogs-0.5b.tar.gz</filename> at the time of writing)
from the usual sites. (``<xref linkend="get-linux-material-by-ftp"
endterm="get-linux-material-by-ftp">'')
</para>
<para>
The maximal number of mounts value can be examined and changed using
the <command>tune2fs</command> program from this package.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.13">
<title id="ext2-fs-warning">
<literal>EXT2-fs warning: checktime reached</literal>.</title>
<para>
Kernels from 1.0 onwards support checking a file system based on the
elapsed time since the last check as well as by the number of mounts.
Get the latest version of the ext2fs utilities.
(``<xref linkend="ext2-fs-maximal" endterm="ext2-fs-maximal">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.14">
<title id="df-says-cannot">
<command>df</command> Says,
``<literal>Cannot read table of mounted file systems</literal>.''</title>
<para>
There is probably something wrong with your
<filename>/etc/mtab</filename> or <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>
files. If you have a reasonably new version of mount,
<filename>/etc/mtab</filename> should
be emptied or deleted at boot time (in
<filename>/etc/rc.local</filename> or <filename>/etc/rc.d/*</filename>),
using something like
</para>
<para><screen>
$ rm -f /etc/mtab*
</screen></para>
<para>
Some old Linux distributions have an entry for the root partition in
<filename>/etc/mtab</filename>
made in <filename>/etc/rc*</filename> by using <command>rdev</command>.
That is incorrect&mdash;the newer versions
of <command>mount</command> do this automatically.
</para>
<para>
Some old distributions also have a line in
<filename>/etc/fstab</filename> that looks like:
</para>
<para><screen>
/dev/sdb1 /root ext2 defaults
</screen></para>
<para>
The entry for <filename>/root</filename> should read simply
<filename>/</filename>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.15">
<title id="fdisk-says-partition">
<command>fdisk</command> Says,
``<literal>Partition X has different physical/logical...</literal>''</title>
<para>
If the partition number (X, above) is 1, this is the same problem as
in <literal>fdisk: Partition 1 does not start on cylinder boundary</literal>.
If the partition begins or ends on a cylinder numbered greater than
1024, this is because the standard DOS disk geometry information
format in the partition table can't cope with cylinder numbers with
more than 10 bits. You should see
(``<xref linkend="linux-to-work-with-my-disk"
endterm="linux-to-work-with-my-disk">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.16">
<title id="fdisk-partition-does-not">
<literal>fdisk: Partition 1 does not start on cylinder boundary</literal>.
</title>
<para>
The version of <command>fdisk</command> that comes with many Linux
systems creates partitions that fail its own validity
checking. Unfortunately, if you've already installed your system,
there's not much you can do about this, apart from copying the data
off the partition, deleting and remaking it, and copying the data
back.
</para>
<para>
You can avoid the problem by getting the latest version of
<command>fdisk</command>, from Rik Faith's util-linux package
(available on all the usual FTP sites). Alternatively, if you are
creating a new partition 1 that starts in the first cylinder, you can
do the following to get a partition that <command>fdisk</command>
likes.
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para>
Create partition 1 in the normal way. A `<literal>p</literal>'
listing will produce the mismatch complaint.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Type <keycap>u</keycap> to set sector mode and do
<keycap>p</keycap> again. Copy down the number
from the <literal>End</literal> column.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Delete partition 1.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
While still in sector mode, re-create partition 1. Set the first
sector to match the number of sectors per track. This is the
sector number in the first line of the <keycap>p</keycap>
output. Set the last sector to the value you wrote down in the step above.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Type <keycap>u</keycap> to reset cylinder mode and continue with other
partitions.
</para></listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>
Ignore the message about unallocated sectors. They refer to the
sectors on the first track apart from the Master Boot Record, and they
are not used if you start the first partition in track 2.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.17">
<title id="fdisk-odd-number-sectors">
<command>fdisk</command> Says Partition <emphasis>n</emphasis> Has
an Odd Number of Sectors.</title>
<para>
The PC disk partitioning scheme works in 512-byte sectors, but Linux
uses 1K blocks. If you have a partition with an odd number of sectors,
the last sector is wasted. Ignore the message.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.18">
<title id="mtools-cannot-initialize">
Mtools Utilities Say They Cannot Initialize Drive <emphasis>X</emphasis>.</title>
<para>
This means that mtools is having trouble accessing the drive. This can
be due to several things.
</para>
<para>
Often this is due to the permissions on floppy drive devices
(<filename>/dev/fd0*</filename> and <filename>/dev/fd1*</filename>)
being incorrect. The user running mtools
must have the appropriate access. See the manual page for
<command>chmod</command> for
details.
</para>
<para>
Most versions of mtools distributed with Linux systems (not the
standard GNU version) use the contents of a file
<filename>/etc/mtools</filename> to
determine which devices and densities to use, in place of having this
information compiled into the binary. Mistakes in this file often
cause problems. There is often no documentation about this.
</para>
<para>
For the easiest way to access your MS-DOS files (especially those on a
hard disk partition) see How do I access files on my DOS
partition or floppy? Note&mdash;you should never use mtools to access files
on an msdosfs mounted partition or disk!
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.19">
<title id="memory-tight">
At the Start of Booting: <literal>Memory tight</literal></title>
<para>
This means that you have an extra-large kernel, which means that Linux
has to do some special memory-management magic to be able to boot
itself from the BIOS. It isn't related to the amount of physical
memory in your machine. Ignore the message, or compile a kernel
containing only the drivers and features you need.
(``<xref linkend="upgrade-recompile-kernel"
endterm="upgrade-recompile-kernel">'')
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.20">
<title id="my-syslog-says-end-request">
The System Log Says, ``<literal>end_request: I/O error</literal>, ....''</title>
<para>
This error message, and messages like it, almost always indicate a
hardware error with a hard drive.
</para>
<para>
This commonly indicates a hard drive defect. The only way to avoid
further data loss is to completely shut own the system. You must also
make sure that whatever data is on the drive is backed up, and restore
it to a non-defective hard drive.
</para>
<para>
This error message may also indicate a bad connection to the drive,
especially with home brew systems. If you install an IDE drive,
<emphasis>always</emphasis>
use new ribbon cables. It's probably is a good idea with SCSI drives, too.
</para>
<para>
In one instance, this error also seemed to coincide with a bad ground
between the system board and the chassis. Be sure that all electrical
connections are clean and tight before placing the blame on the hard
drive itself.
</para>
<para>
[Peter Moulder, Theodore Ts'o]
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.21">
<title id="you-don-t-exist">
``<literal>You don't exist. Go away.</literal>''</title>
<para>
This is not a viral infection. It comes from programs like
<command>write</command>, <command>talk</command>, and
<command>wall</command>, if your invoking UID doesn't correspond to a valid
user (probably due to <filename>/etc/passwd</filename> being corrupted),
or if the session
(pseudoterminal, specifically) you're using isn't properly registered
in the <filename>utmp</filename> file (probably because you invoked
it in a funny way).
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.22">
<title id="chattr">
``<literal>Operation not permitted</literal>.''</title>
<para>
One or more of the file's or directory's attribute bits are set
incorrectly. If the ``<literal>I</literal>'' bit is set, for
example, you won't be able to change file permissions with
<command>chmod</command>.
</para>
<para>
The solution is to use <command>lsattr</command> to display file and
directory attributes, and <command>chattr</command> to set and unset
them. The programs' documentation is contained in their manual pages.
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Paul Campbell&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.23">
<title><emphasis>programname: </emphasis>
<literal>error in loading shared libraries: lib</literal>
<emphasis>xxx.</emphasis><literal>.so.</literal>
<emphasis>x</emphasis><literal>: cannot open shared object file:
No such file or directory.</literal>
</title>
<para>
A message like this, when the program that you're trying to run uses
shared libraries, usually means one of two things: the program was
either compiled on a machine that had a different set of libraries
or library paths than yours; or you've upgraded your libraries
but not the program.
</para>
<para>
Executable programs that are linked with dynamic libraries, expect the
full pathname of each of the library files it requires. So do the
shared libraries, if they rely on other libraries. This is so
the shared object dependencies remain as unambiguous as possible, and
also as a security measure.
</para>
<para>
Short of recompiling the executable file for the libraries on the
system&mdash;probably the most desirable alternative in the long
run&mdash;you can try to determine which libraries the executable file needs
with the command: ``<literal>ldd
</literal><emphasis>programname</emphasis>.'' The output will be a
list of the shared libraries on the system that the program needs to
run, as well as the missing libraries. You can then add the library
packages, or if the libraries already exist in a different directory,
you can create a symbolic link so the program can find it. For
example, if the program requires /usr/lib/libncurses.so.2, and your
machine has /lib/libncurses.so.2, you can create a link where the
program expects to find the library; e.g.:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
# cd /usr/lib && ln -s /lib/libncurses.so.2 .
</screen>
</para>
<para>
You should note, however, that creating library links like these
should be considered a security risk, and the additional links you
create will not be compatible with future upgrades. It's simply
a quick fix for backward compatibility.
</para>
<para>
Also, it may take some guesswork to determine in exactly which of the
system library directories the program expects to find a shared
library file, because <literal>ldd</literal> will not list the paths
of libraries it can't find. A program most likely will tell the
run-time linker, <literal>/lib/ld.so</literal>, to look for shared
libraries in <filename>/lib</filename>, <filename>/usr/lib</filename>,
<filename>/usr/local/lib</filename>, or
<filename>/usr/X11R6/lib</filename>, if it's an X client. But that
doesn't mean that libraries can't be installed elsewhere. It helps to
have some idea of the original library configuration before
proceeding.
</para>
<para>
Also be sure to run <literal>ldconfig</literal> after creating the
symbolic link, so that <literal>ld.so</literal> has an updated view
of the system's libraries. You should also make certain that all of
the library directories are listed in
<filename>/etc/ld.so.conf</filename>, and perhaps in the
<literal>LD_LIBRARY_PATH</literal> environment variable.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.24">
<title>
``<literal>
init: Id "x" respawning too fast: disabled for 5 minutes
</literal>.''
</title>
<para>
In most distributions this means that the system is booting by default
into runlevel 5, which is supposed to respawn (re-start again
after it's been exited) a graphical login via
<application>xdm</application>,
<application>kdm</application>,
<application>gdm</application>, or whatever,
and the system can't locate the program.
</para>
<para>
However, ``<literal>Id</literal>'' can also indicate the absence
or misconfiguration of another program, like
<application>mingetty</application>, if <application>init</application>
tries to respawn itself more than 10 times in 2 minutes.
</para>
<para>
Id ``x'' is the number in the leftmost column of the
<filename>/etc/inittab</filename> file:
</para>
<para><screen>
# Run gettys in standard runlevels
1:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty1
2:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty2
3:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty3
4:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty4
5:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty5
6:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty6
</screen></para>
<para>
Commenting the offending line out and then fixing the errant program and
testing on the command line will allow you to see any error messages
that go to standard error output (console) if the errors are not
going to the system log file. Uncomment the line and restart
<application>init</application> with
``<literal>kill -SIGHUP 1</literal>'' or
``<application>telinit q</application>'' to cause
<application>init</application> to reinitialize and reread the
<filename>/etc/inittab</filename> file.
</para>
<para>
Some systems, however, rewrite <filename>/etc/inittab</filename> when
booting. In that case, refer to the <literal>init</literal> man
page, and/or the settings in <filename>/etc/sysconfig/init</filename>.
</para>
<para>
Refer to the <application>init</application> and
<filename>/etc/inittab</filename> man pages for detailed
information.
</para>
<para>
&lsqb;Carl King&rsqb;
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="9.25">
<title id="ftp-421-error">
FTP server says: ``421 service not available, remote server has closed connection.''
</title>
<para>
If an FTP server won't allow logins, it is probably configured
correctly, but the problem is probably with authorizing users at login.
FTP servers in current distriubtions often authorize users with the
Pluggable Authentication Modules library, in which case there should
be an authorization file <filename>/etc/pam.d/ftp</filename>. A
generic authorization file looks like this. (The line break on the
first ``auth'' line is for readability. The entry is actually a single,
long line).
</para>
<para><screen>
#%PAM-1.0
auth required /lib/security/pam_listfile.so item=user \
sense=deny file=/etc/ftpusers onerr=succeed
auth required /lib/security/pam_pwdb.so shadow nullok
auth required /lib/security/pam_shells.so
account required /lib/security/pam_pwdb.so
session required /lib/security/pam_pwdb.so
</screen></para>
<para>
Also, make sure the <filename>/etc/ftpusers</filename> file, or whatever
users file is named in the first ``auth'' line, is configured correctly.
</para>
<para>
Btw, the sample <filename>ftp</filename> file above is actually
the<filename>ftpd/ftp.pam.sample</filename> file from the
<filename>ftpd-BSD-0.3.1.tar.gz</filename> package. Many thanks
to David A. Madore for this much needed port.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 label="10">
<title>The X Window System</title>
<sect2 label="10.1">
<title id="linux-support-x">Does Linux Support X?</title>
<para>
Yes. Linux uses XFree86 (the current version is 4.0, which is based
on X11R6). You need to have a video card which is supported by
XFree86. See the <citetitle>XFree86 HOWTO</citetitle> for more details.
Most Linux distributions nowadays come with an X installation.
However, you can install or upgrade your own, from
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/X11/Xfree86-*">
<literal>"ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/X11/Xfree86-*"</literal></ulink>
and its mirror sites, or from
<ulink url="http://www.xfree86.org/">
<literal>http://www.xfree86.org/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="10.2">
<title id="get-x-window-system-work">
How To Get the X Window System to Work.</title>
<para>
The answers to this question can, and do, fill entire books. If the
installation program wasn't able to configure the X server correctly,
Linux will most likely try to start the X display, fail, and drop back
into text-only terminal mode.
</para>
<para>
First and foremost, make certain that you have provided, as closely as
possible, the correct information to the installation program of your
video hardware: the video card and monitor. Some installation programs
can correctly guess a ``least common denominator'' screen configuration,
like a 640-by-480 VESA-standard display, but there are many possible
video hardware configurations that may not be able to display this
standard.
</para>
<para>
The X Window System configuration file is called (usually)
<filename>/etc/XF86Config</filename>,
<filename>/etc/X11/XF86Config</filename>, or
<filename>/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/XF86Config</filename>.
</para>
<para>
If you need to manually configure the X server, there are several
possible methods:
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para>
Try to use the <command>XF86Setup</command> program, which
can help identify the
correct X server and monitor timings for the video hardware.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Make sure that the X server has the correct
options. If you log in as the superuser, you should be able to use
<literal>X --probeonly</literal> to get a listing of the video card
chipset, memory, and any special graphics features. Also, refer to the
manual page for the X server. (E.g.; <literal>man X</literal>), and
try running the X server and redirecting the standard error output to
a file so you can determine, after you can view text on the screen
again, what error messages the server is generating; e.g., <literal>X
2>x.error</literal>.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
With that information, you should be able to safely refer to one
of the references provided by the Linux Documentation Project.
("Where can I get the HOWTO's and other documentation? ")
There are several HOWTO's on the subject, including a HOWTO to
calculate video timings manually if necessary. Also, the
<citetitle>Installation and Getting Started</citetitle> guide
has a chapter with a step-by-step guide to writing a
<filename>XF86Config</filename> file.
</para></listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>
Also, make sure that the problem really is an incorrect
<filename>XF86Config</filename>
file, not something else like the window manager failing to start. If
the X server is working correctly, you should be able to move the
mouse cursor on the screen, and pressing
<keycombo><keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>Backspace</keycap></keycombo> will shut
down the X server and return to the shell prompt in one of the virtual
terminals.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="10.3">
<title id="ready-made-xf86config">
Where To Find a Ready-Made <filename>XF86Config</filename> file.</title>
<para>
If you can't seem to get X working using the guidelines above, refer
to the <citetitle>XFree86 HOWTO</citetitle>, recent versions of
<citetitle>Installation and
Getting Started</citetitle>, and the instructions for the
<filename>XF86Setup</filename> program.
The contents of the <filename>XF86Config</filename> file
depend on the your exact
combination of video card and monitor. It can either be configured by
hand, or using the <command>XF86Setup</command> utility.
Read the instructions that came
with XFree86, in <filename>/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/etc</filename>.
The file you probably need to
look at most is <filename>README.Config</filename>.
You should not use the sample <filename>XF86Config.eg</filename>
file which is included
with newer versions of XFree86 verbatim, because the wrong video clock
settings can damage your monitor.
Please don't post to <citetitle>comp.os.linux.x</citetitle>
asking for an <filename>XF86Config</filename>, and
please don't answer such requests.
If you have a laptop, look at the Linux Laptop Web page (``<xref
linkend="my-notebook-runs-linux" endterm="my-notebook-runs-linux">'')
Many of the installation notes also have the
<filename>XF86Config</filename> file for the display. If you have a
desktop machine, there are a few sample
<filename>XF86Config</filename> files at
<ulink url="ftp://metalab.unc.edu/">
<literal>ftp://metalab.unc.edu/</literal></ulink>. Refer
also to the <citetitle>XFree86 FAQ</citetitle>
<ulink url="http://www.xfree.org/FAQ/">
<literal>http://www.xfree.org/FAQ/</literal></ulink>
and the monitor timings list
<ulink url="http://www.xfree.org/#resources/">
<literal>http://www.xfree.org/#resources/</literal></ulink>, and in
the <filename>/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/</filename> directory of your X
distribution.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="10.4">
<title id="what-desktop-environments">
What Desktop Environments Run on Linux?</title>
<para>
Linux with XFree86 supports the KDE, GNOME, and commercial CDE desktop
environments, and extended window managers like WindowMaker. Each uses
a different set of libraries and provides varying degrees of MS
Windows-like look and feel.
</para>
<para>
Information on KDE is available from
<ulink url="http://www.kde.org/">
<literal>http://www.kde.org/</literal></ulink>. The KDE
environment uses the Qt graphics libraries, available from
<ulink url="http://www.qt.org/">
<literal>http://www.qt.org/</literal></ulink>. The desktop uses its
own window manager, kwm, and provides a MS Windows-like look and feel.
</para>
<para>
The GNOME home page is
<ulink url="http://www.gnome.org/">
<literal>http://www.gnome.org/</literal></ulink>. The environment
uses the free GTK libraries, available from
<ulink url="http://www.gtk.org/">
<literal>http://www.gtk.org/</literal></ulink>,
and window managers like Enlightenment,
<ulink url="http://www.enlightenment.org/">
<literal>http://www.enlightenment.org/</literal></ulink>,
SawFish, <ulink url="http://www.sawfish.org/">
<literal>http://www.sawfish.org/</literal></ulink>. There's
also a Web page for GNOME installation and upgrade that functions much
like Debian's <command>apt-get</command> utility with a friendly GUI
front end. It's at:
<ulink url="http://www.helixcode.com/desktop/">
<literal>http://www.helixcode/com/desktop/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
The commercial CDE environment uses the Motif libraries and a
variation of the Motif <command>mwm</command> window manager,
<command>dtwm</command>, and provides a suite of desktop and
session-management utilities. Several vendors have made the source
code of Motif available and provided binary packages for Linux
distributions. As a starting point, download and installation
information is available at <ulink
url="http://www.opengroup.org/openmotif/">
<literal>http://www.opengroup.org/openmotif/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
A free version of Motif, called LessTiF, is available from
<ulink url="http://www.lesstif.org/">
<literal>http://www.lesstif.org/</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
WindowMaker,
<ulink url="http://www.windowmaker.org/">
<literal>http://www.windowmaker.org/</literal></ulink>
is a window manager that
has many desktop environment-like features. It provides support for
GNUstep,
<ulink url="http://www.gnustep.org/">
<literal>http://www.gnustep.org/</literal></ulink>, a clone of the
commercial NeXTStep environment.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="10.5">
<title id="xterm-logins-show-strangely">
<command>xterm</command> Logins Show Up Strangely in
<command>who</command>, <command>finger</command>.</title>
<para>
The <command>xterm</command> that comes with XFree86 2.1 and
earlier doesn't correctly
understand the format that Linux uses for the
<filename>/var/adm/utmp</filename> file,
where the system records who is logged in. It therefore doesn't set
all the information correctly.
The <application>xterms</application> in XFree86 3.1 and later versions
fix this problem.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="10.6">
<title id="detach-xterm">
How to Start a X Client on Another Display.
</title>
<para>
To start a X client on another system that has a running X
server, use the following commands:
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
Use <application>xhost</application> on the server system
to allow the client system use the display. If the server's
IP address is 192.168.20.1, enter the command:
<para>
<screen>
$ xhost + 192.168.20.1
</screen>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
On the client system, open a telnet connection to the server system.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
In the telnet session, start a <application>xterm</application> in
the background with the <literal>-display</literal> and
<literal>-e</literal> options. For example, if the IP address of
the machine running the server is 192.168.20.1 and the client
program name is named ``clientapp,'' use the following command:
</para>
<para>
<screen>
$ xterm -display 192.168.20.1 -e clientapp &
</screen>
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>
&lsqb;Pierre Dal Farra&rsqb;
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 label="11">
<title>How to Get Further Assistance</title>
<sect2 label="11.1">
<title id="still-havent-answered">
If this Document Still Hasn't Answered Your Question....</title>
<para>
Please read all of this answer before posting. I know it's a bit long,
but you may be about to make a fool of yourself in front of 50,000
people and waste hundreds of hours of their time. Don't you think it's
worth spending some of your time to read and follow these
instructions?
</para>
<para>
If you think an answer is incomplete or inaccurate, please e-mail
Robert Kiesling at
<ulink url="mailto:rkiesling@mainmatter.com">
<literal>rkiesling@mainmatter.com</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
Read the appropriate Linux Documentation Project books. Refer to:
(``<xref linkend="howtos-and-other-documentation"
endterm="howtos-and-other-documentation">'')
</para>
<para>
If you're a Unix or Linux newbie, read the FAQ for
<citetitle>comp.unix.questions</citetitle>,
<citetitle>news.announces.newusers</citetitle>, and those for any of
the other <citetitle>comp.unix.*</citetitle> groups
that may be relevant.
</para>
<para>
Linux has so much in common with commercial unices, that almost
everything you read there will apply to Linux. The FAQ's, like all
FAQ's, be found on
<ulink url="ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/">
<literal>ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/</literal></ulink>
(the
<ulink url="mailto:mail-server@rtfm.mit.edu">
<literal>mail-server@rtfm.mit.edu</literal></ulink> can send
you these files, if you don't have FTP access). There are mirrors of
<literal>rtfm</literal>'s FAQ archives on various sites. Check the
Introduction to *.answers posting, or look in
<filename>news-answers/introduction</filename> in the directory above.
</para>
<para>
Check the relevant HOWTO for the subject in question, if there is one,
or an appropriate old style sub-FAQ document. Check the FTP sites.
</para>
<para>
Try experimenting&mdash;that's the best way to get to know Unix and Linux.
</para>
<para>
Read the documentation. Check the manual pages (type
<literal>man man</literal> if
you don't know about manual pages. Also try
<literal>man -k subject</literal> and <literal>apropos subject</literal>. They
often list useful and relevant, but not very obvious, manual pages.
</para>
<para>
Check the Info documentation (type
<keycombo><keycap>F1</keycap><keycap>i</keycap></keycombo>,
i.e. the <keycap>F1</keycap> function key followed by ``i''
in Emacs). This isn't just for Emacs. For example, the GCC
documentation lives here as well.
</para>
<para>
There will also often be a <filename>README</filename>
file with a package that gives
installation and/or usage instructions.
</para>
<para>
Make sure you don't have a corrupted or out-of-date copy of the
program in question. If possible, download it again and re-install
it&mdash;you probably made a mistake the first time.
</para>
<para>
Read <citetitle>comp.os.linux.announce</citetitle>. It often
contains very important information for all Linux users.
General X Window System questions belong in
<citetitle>comp.windows.x.i386unix</citetitle>,
not in <citetitle>comp.os.linux.x</citetitle>.
But read the group first (including the FAQ),
before you post.
Only if you have done all of these things and are still stuck, should
you post to the appropriate <citetitle>comp.os.linux.*</citetitle>
newsgroup. Make sure you
read the next question first. "( What to put in a request for
help. )"
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="11.2">
<title id="what-in-request-help.">
What to Put in a Request for Help.</title>
<para>
Please read the following advice carefully about how to write your
posting or E-mail. Making a complete posting will greatly increase the
chances that an expert or fellow user reading it will have enough
information and motivation to reply.
</para>
<para>
This advice applies both to postings asking for advice and to personal
E-mail sent to experts and fellow users.
</para>
<para>
Make sure you give full details of the problem, including:
</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para>
What program, exactly, you are having problems with. Include the
version number if known and say where you got it. Many standard
commands tell you their version number if you give them a
<literal>--version</literal> option.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Which Linux release you're using (Red Hat, Slackware, Debian, or
whatever) and what version of that release.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
The exact and complete text of any error messages printed.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Exactly what behavior you expected, and exactly what behavior you
observed. A transcript of an example session is a good way to show
this.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
The contents of any configuration files used by the program in
question and any related programs.
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
What version of the kernel and shared libraries you have
installed. The kernel version can be found by typing
``<literal>uname -a</literal>,'' and
the shared library version by typing
``<literal>ls -l /lib/libc*</literal>.''
</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>
Details of what hardware you're running on, if it seems
appropriate.
</para></listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>
You are in little danger of making your posting too long unless you
include large chunks of source code or uuencoded files, so err on the
side of giving too much information.
</para>
<para>
Use a clear, detailed Subject line. Don't put things like ``doesn't
work,'' ``Linux,'' ``help,'' or ``question'' in it&mdash;we already know that.
Save the space for the name of the program, a fragment of an error
message, or summary of the unusual behavior.
</para>
<para>
Put a summary paragraph at the top of your posting.
</para>
<para>
At the bottom of your posting, ask for responses by email and say
you'll post a summary. Back this up by using
``<literal>Followup-To: poster</literal>.''
Then, actually post the summary in a few days or a week or so. Don't
just concatenate the replies you got&mdash;summarize. Putting the word
``SUMMARY'' in your summary's Subject line is also a good idea. Consider
submitting the summary to <citetitle>comp.os.linux.announce</citetitle>.
</para>
<para>
Make sure your posting doesn't have an inappropriate References:
header line. This marks your article as part of the thread of the
article referred to, which will often cause it to be junked by
readers, along with the rest of a boring thread.
</para>
<para>
You might like to say in your posting that you've read this FAQ and
the appropriate HOWTO's&mdash;this may make people less likely to skip your
posting.
</para>
<para>
Remember that you should not post E-mail sent to you personally without
the sender's permission.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="11.3">
<title id="mail-someone-about-problem.">
How To Email Someone about Your Problem.</title>
<para>
Try to find the author or developer of whatever program or component
is causing you difficulty. If you have a contact point for your Linux
distribution, you should use it.
</para>
<para>
Please put everything in your E-mail message that you would put in a
posting asking for help.
</para>
<para>
Finally, remember that, despite the fact that most of the Linux
community are very helpful and responsive to E-mailed questions,
you're likely asking for help from unpaid volunteers, so you have no
right to expect an answer.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 label="12">
<title>Acknowledgments and Administrivia</title>
<sect2 label="12.1">
<title id="feedback-is-invited">Where To Send Comments.</title>
<para>
Please send comments to the maintainer:
<literal>rkiesling@mainmatter.com</literal>.
</para>
<para>
Contributions to the FAQ may be in any format.
Comments and corrections are gratefully received. Again, that email
address is: <literal>rkiesling@mainmatter.com</literal>.
</para>
<para>
If you wish to refer to a question in the FAQ, it's better to
do so by the question heading instead of number. The question
numbers are generated automagically, and I don't see them in the
source file.
</para>
<para>
I prefer comments in English to patch files&mdash;context diff is not my
first language.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="12.2">
<title id="formats-which-faq">
Formats in Which This FAQ Is Available.</title>
<para>
This document is available as an ASCII text file, an HTML World Wide
Web page, Postscript, PDF, and as a USENET news posting.
</para>
<para>
Section and item numbers are generated with Perl.
HTML is generated from SGML source using the Jade DSSSL interpreter by
James Clark. Text versions are generated using
<application>lynx</application> and edited with <command>sed</command>,
which are part of most Linux distributions.
</para>
<para>
The Usenet version is posted regularly to
<citetitle>news.answers</citetitle>, <citetitle>comp.answers</citetitle>,
and <citetitle>comp.os.linux.misc</citetitle>. It is archived at
<ulink url="ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet-by-hierarchy/comp/os/linux/misc/">
<literal>ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet-by-hierarchy/comp/os/linux/misc/
</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
For Postscript and PDF versions, please contact the FAQ maintainer.
</para>
<para>
If you would like to receive the archived version of the FAQ by
E-mail, send the following in the body of an E-mail message to
<ulink url="mailto:mail-server@rtfm.mit.edu">
<literal>mail-server@rtfm.mit.edu</literal></ulink>:
</para>
<para><screen>
send faqs/linux/faq
</screen></para>
<para>
Text, HTML, and SGML versions are available from the
Linux archives at metalab.unc.edu, and from
<ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org/">
<literal>http://www.linuxdoc.org/</literal></ulink>,
but they may be out of date, owing
to lack of time on the LDP maintainers' parts.
</para>
<para>
The latest text and HTML versions are available at
<ulink url="http://www.mainmatter.com/">
<literal>http://www.mainmatter.com</literal></ulink>
and directly from the FAQ maintainer,
<ulink url="mailto:rkiesling@mainmatter.com">
<literal>rkiesling@mainmatter.com</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="12.3">
<title id="authorship-and-acknowledgments">
Authorship and Acknowledgments.</title>
<para>
This FAQ is compiled and maintained by Robert Kiesling,
<ulink url="mailto:rkiesling@mainmatter.com">
<literal>rkiesling@mainmatter.com</literal></ulink>,
with assistance and comments from Linux activists all over the world.
</para>
<para>
Freddy Contreras, <literal>the_blur_oc@hotmail.com</literal>,
designed and GPL'd the Linux Frequently Asked Questions logos
that appear on <literal>www.mainmatter.com</literal>.
</para>
<para>
Special thanks are due to Matt Welsh, who moderated
<citetitle>comp.os.linux.announce</citetitle> and
<citetitle>comp.os.linux.answers</citetitle>, coordinated the
HOWTO's and wrote substantial portions of many of them, Greg Hankins
the former Linux Documentation Project HOWTO maintainer, Lars
Wirzenius and Mikko Rauhala, the former and current moderators of
<citetitle>comp.os.linux.announce</citetitle>,
Marc-Michel Corsini, who wrote the original
Linux FAQ, and Ian Jackson, the previous FAQ maintainer. Thanks also
to Roman Maurer for his many updates and additions, especially with
European Web sites, translations, and general miscellany.
</para>
<para>
Last but not least, thanks to Linus Torvalds and the other
contributors to Linux for giving us something to talk about!
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 label="12.4">
<title id="disclaimer">Disclaimer and Copyright.</title>
<para>
The GNU Free Documentation License
</para>
<para>
Copyright (c) 2001 Robert Kiesling. Permission is granted to copy,
distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no
Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included at: <ulink
url="http://www.gnu.org/licenses/licenses.html#FDL">
<literal>http://www.gnu.org/licenses/licenses.html#FDL</literal></ulink>.
</para>
<para>
I would be happy to answer any questions regarding the copyright. My
email address is: <ulink url="mailto:rkiesling@mainmatter.com">
<literal>rkiesling@mainmatter.com</literal></ulink>.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
</article>
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